A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese: As Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect

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A GRAMMAR

OF

COLLOQUIAIL. CHinSTESE,

SHANGHAI DIALECT,

J. EDKINS, B.A., CBiT.eoll.lond.

Of the London Misswnary Society.

SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED.

SHANGmAI:

PRBSBTTERIAN MISSION PRESS.

1868.

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PREFACE,

TO FIRST EDITION 1853.

Among works on Chinese Grammar, that of Premare,
written a century and a half ago, still stands preeminent.
Besides a more extended knowledge, he possessed a better ap-
preciation of the peculiar beauties of Chinese style, than any
other writer on the subject. But it has been justly remarked
that his work, abounding in good examples, is deficient in or-
der, and the exhibition of principles. Remusat, in his ac-
curate and learned work, has made great use of Premare,
but he has giren less attention than his predecessor, to those
numerous groups, in which ideas or sounds are repeated, and
he says nothing on propositions. The deficiency that the
reader of these works feels in the ti-eatment of groups of words,
has been pointed out by Bazin in his clever Essay on Collo-
quial Mandarin. He quotes the section on words, in Gutzlaff *8
Notices on Chinese Grammar, containing a classification of
compound words. Partly from the suggestion of that work,
and more from his own researches, he has constructed a com-
prehensive system of grouped words (mots composes).

The little work now in the hands of the reader, is an at-
tempt to elucidate colloquial Chinese, by taking a limited
field of enquiry, tliat of the dialect of a single district. By
this means it has been hoped, something might be done to
help the causes of Cliinese philology, by collecting facts,
which wi'iters having a wider scope, have overlooked.

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IV

There are aids for the study of the southern dialects of
China, but no one has yet written on the speech of the rich
and populous province of Kidng-n&n. On Missionary and Com-
mercial grounds, it is time that some attempt should be made
to supply this want.

The mandarin student will meet with scarcely any new
idioms here. Of words, there are a few tens not used in the
fashionable colloquial. It is in sounds that the greatest vari-
ation exists, and an attempt has therefore been made to form
a correct nomenclature for tones, and for the alphabetic ele-
ments of spoken words. For the latter, Sir W. Jones' system,
as introduced by J. E. Morrison in the Chinese Repository,
has, with a few necessary modifications, been adopted as by
far the best.

For the tones, a new nomenclature is here proposed, based
on their real character, as distinct from the arbitrary names,
which, though they doubtless represented exactly the tones
used by their author, are not applicable, except for conveni-
ence sake, to those of other dialects.

Upwards of twenty natural tones, from which each dialect
chooses its own set, varying from four to eight, are here de-
scribed. The early Roman Catholic Missionaries wrote much
on this singular characteristic of spoken Chinese, but Bayer
in his abstract of their system, in the Museum Sinicum, has
not given a very intelligible account of it. •

Attention has been paid throughout to the mode of group-
ing words, as a subject second to none in interest and impor-
tance. Some similarity, though an independent one, will be
found here to the system adopted by M. Bazin.

The grammars of Morrison and Marshman, beside the ex-
cellent works already alluded to, have been of occasional ser-

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vice, especially the latter, which with all its diffuseness, is a
useful and suggestive book.

Tiie assistance of friends has been kindly afforded. To Dr.
Medhurst special thanks are due, for revising the sheets as
they passed through the press, thus adding much to the cor-
rectness of the work ; and to Rev. T. M'Clatchie, for material
assistance in regard to the laws of Shanghai tones.

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VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS, ^

PART L.

ox SOUND, 1 — 57.

Page.
Section 1 . Alphabet. Table of sounds. - 1.

2. On the Chinese tones. Natural tones described.
Tones of several dialects - 6.

3. On Shanjjhai tones. Tones in state of transition.
Relation of tones to music and accents. 13.

4. Alphabetic elements of the sounds. The 36 ini-
tials of the Dictionaries, Represent the sounds of the old lan-
guage, and are now a provincial pronunciation. The Shanghai
dialect, a branch of that system. Finals. Comparative table
of Shanghai and Mandarin finals. The final consonants n, ng

and k. 43.

PART II.

ox THE PARTS OP SPEECH, 58 — .162

Sectio7i. 1, Native divisions. Division proposed by a native
grammarian 58.

2. Relation of the dialect to the written language,
and to other dialects. Primitive words exemplified. Relation
to the mandarin of the Historical Romances. Compared with

the dialect of Su-cheu. 1 60.

3. On Substantives. 66,

4. On Numeral and Quantitative Auxiliary Sub-
stantives. Distinctive Particles. Significant Particles. Weights

and measures. Collectives. 81-

5. On Adjectives. 89,

6. On Pronouns . 101.

7. On Verbs. Modes of grouping. Kinds of Verbs.
Mode. Tense. 1-- — 111.

8. Propositions, and Postpositions. 1 34.

9. On Adverbs - 136.

10. On Conjunctions - -- 154.

11. On Expletives and Interjections. .„ 160.

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Vll

PART III.

ON SYNTAX, 163 — 214.

Page.

Section 1, On Government: 163.

2. Interchange of the Parts of Speech. Adjective

as Substantive. Verb as Substantive, and as Adjective, &c.-- 164.

Section 3. On Government of Words in Groups. 170.

4. On Repetition 176.

5. On Order in Groups. 181-

6. On Simple Propositions 187-

7. On Subordinate Sentences 196.

8. On Coordinate Sentences. 205.^

9. On Antithesis - -- 210.

10. OnRhythmus. - 212.

Appendix I. On the ^ 3 or higher colloquial used by

literary men. 215.

II. On the Native Tables of Initials and Finals.
Imitated from the Sanscrit. Geographical outline of the dia-
lects that agree with the dictionaiy system. 216.

Addenda.

Errata.

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vm

RULES FOR USING THE ORTHOGRAPHY HERE ADOPTED.

1. The accent marks long vowels i, e, a, 6, u, pronounced as the
vowel in feel, fail, father, foal, fool.

2. Vowels not accented are the five short vowels correspoding
to these ; e. g. in fin, fen, fan, fop, fun.*

3. The remaining vowels are '6, 0, au, il, eu, pronounced as in
k6nig, une, auburn, ^, |i^

4. The initial consonants k, t, p, f, s, are pronounced high and
with the English and Scotch sound. When k, t, p, take an aspirate
as in the pronunciation of some parts of Ireland and the United States,
they are written k*, f, p\ These with the vowels and h' a strong
aspirate, constitute the upper series.

• 5. The initials g, d, b, v, z with ng, n, m, 1, rh, a soft aspirate
A, and vowel initials form the lower series. The italic k, t, etc.,
are to be pronounced two full musical notes lower than the roman
k, t, etc., and are counted as the same with g, d, &c.

6. The nasals m, ng, n, without a vowel are italicised.

7. Final n when italicised is pronounced very indistinctly.

8. The superior commas on the left and right of a word, mark
the second and third tones. Final h, k and g, indicate the short
tone. Words not thus marked are all in the first tone.

The series is known by the initial as in the native mode of spelling,
^ ^j Fan-t'sih. The capital letters denote dialects as r-

S. Shanghai sound.
M. Mandarin ,^
C. Colloquial „
1\. Ixeadiuij^ ,,

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A GRAMMAR

OP THE

SHANGHAI DIALECT,

PAET I.

ON SOUND.
Section 1. Alphabet,

1. The alphabetical symbols we shall need to employ are
the following: —

Symbols. Pronunciation and Examples.

a ^ as a in father; J^ k'a, wipe; ^ pa% tvorship,
a as a in sand, or in hat; !§• k'a/i, lead; ^ lah,

wax.
au as in Paul^ or as a in fall, or o in gone; ^ 'lau,

old. Au expresses the mandarin sound.
h or p as in ^ ^^ing*, sickness; ^ ^ sang bing^, to he

sick.
d or t as in Jg ^au*, doctrine; %i^ J^ zun dau^, vnen

canonized for their virtues.
dz a compound of d and z; ^ dzing^, exhaust.

dzz do. as dze in acfee. The second z marks a pecu-
liar vowel sound which is sometimes between i

and e, ^ dzz, to leave.
e as ai in tail, or a in male; ^ le, come,

e as e in led or let; -^ seh, ten.

eu nearly as ou in cowsin lengthened; ^ 'sen, ZiaTic?.

Eu expresses the mandarin sound, as oiv in cot^;.
f ' as in ^ fu, or |§ ^ iiau^ fu, chair -hearer.*

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C

/

THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Symbols. Pronunciation and Examples.

g or Ic as in ^ /d, he, before i, u often heard likeji; ^ ^
iong^ tsong*, altogether,

h a feeble aspirate, often lost; ^ 7ieh, combine; ^

^wong, emperor. When quite lost, as in the
latter^word, it will be omitted.
. h and h' a strong guttural aspirate, nearly equivalent to
sh when occurring before i and ii; ^ 'he, sea; ^
'h'i, glad. Before I and % the superior comma
will be used.

i as i in marine; W si, loest.

i as i in sing or sit; jgi sing, heart,

dj nearly as/ in e/une; j^ djii*, preface. This sound

may also be r^^ad z. The natives use either.

k *& '^ 'ku kiun, ancient and modern,

k' a stongly aspirated sound ^ k'ung, empty. It

is often mistaken by foreign ears when occurring
before i and li, for the aspirated c*h but should
be separated from that sound in careful pronun-
ciation; ^ k'i^, go; usually heard chi^'aspirated,^*

1 Si 'li, propriety,

• mor m ^ 'mt, rice; Pg g[ m meh, there is no more.
B ^ 'nti, looman,

ngor^igra nasal consonant used at the beginning or close
of a syllable. When no distinct vowel sound ac-
companies it, it is marked ng; JX ^^^Zy '^iver;
n'^g^,I;%'ng,five,

a2i,eri,u7i a slight nasal, best heard before another word;
'fg, tdin'j hut; gj; 'ke^, dare; ^ kQ7i, dry] ^ su?i*,
count) ^ 1^ pe?^ 'ts6n, to lohril round,

6 as in go; *fQ p'o^ /ear.

as in gong and got; ^ tong, owgr/if, bear; ^

loh,/a??.

6 as o in Gothe; ^ tori, correct; ^ k'on^ see; ^

<oh, ^-oft.

* .When a native is asked whether k'i' or c'hi* is the more correct pronun-
ciation of ^ he repUes the former. Yet the ortliography by c'hi' seems to
the foreigner more like the true sound. The fact is tliat tlie sound is in a
state of transition from k'i to c*hi.

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PAUT I. SBCTION 1. ALPHABET. 3

Symbols. Pronunciation and Examples.

P ' Jfc pi> compare.

p' as p with a strong aspirate ; § p'i^ lihe.

rh a peculiar Chinese sound, the same as in man-

darin ; M ^1^> <^^^-

s yji 'su, whicJiy therefore. ^

sz a peculiar Chinese sibilant/--' pronounced as in

mandarin, and nearly as se in csistle, wliistle, t,
1, being supposed omitted ; |f sz, poetry,

t ^ tii, many,

t' as t with a strong aspirate ; % t'u, to drato,

ts ^ tsuS do,

ts' the last strongly aspirated ; 5^ ts'ieu, Autumn,

tsz a peculiar Chinese sibilant, pronounced as in
mandarin, as ts in ha^s ; ^. 'tsz, a son; ^ tsz,
knozv,

ts'z the above with a strong aspirate ; H^ ts'z, female.

u as w in rz^le ; §^ suS commo7iy j^fcttn.

u as to in rt^n ; f^ mun, door; ^ 'tung, 2aatt.

ii French u as in vertw; German ii as in Tubingen;

^ h'ti, empt]/.

ft ^ ts't^y place. This vowel is between 6 and u.

V or/ 'j^/eh, Buddha ; ^ /oiigj Aowse. More of v
than f.

w -^ kwong, light; ^ ?c7ong, k{7ig.

y ^ y^^S right-hand; ^ yau% ^o icra^if.

z or 5 ^ siang% elephant; ^ zu*, 5^Y.

An apostrophe ' preceding the word, denotes the second

tone.

A comma ^ following the word, denotes the third tone.

The fourth tone will be written with /i, Jc or g final.

Words left unmarked are in the first tone.f

* This sound is better described as s and a peculiar vowel i or t, s, and i.
The mark i denotes a vowel peculiar to China but like e in castle.

f The further subdivision into upper and lower tones needs no mark, be-
ing indicated uniformly by the initial letter. Thus, b, g, d, z, 1, m, n, r, and
any letters ilaUcized are in the lower tones ; other initial letters denote upper
tones. There are a few exceptions which will be noted afterwards. A ^nal
italic letter denotes a nasal.

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4 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

2. Mandarin pronunciation wants several of these sounds.
Among the vowels, the short a and e together with u are
omitted, and au, eu, are lengthened into au, eil. Among the '
consonants, b, d, g, dj, m, ng, ?i, dz, dzz, v and z are want-
ing.

3. The Shangliai dialect is deficient in the sh, ch and
soft j of mandarin and of Su-cheu pronunciatiop.

4. Of the above sounds, those foreign to the English
language, and therefore needing particular attention, are the
following : —

Of vowels, eic as in U 'k!e\i,7nout7i; 6 as in ^ oUj rest, ft
as in H tsun, to bore. A final r should be carefully avoided
in these three sounds. Oe is not so common in this dialect
as in that of Su-cheu, where it occurs in |gf joTi, boat, ^
'm6n,faU, etc., etc. Tlie vowel li, (French u), is often con-
vertible with u. Thus ^ su, booh is pronounced sti at Sung-
kiang and to the east of the Hwang-p'u, while it becomes sz
in Pau-shan district.

Of consonants, note well the sibilants sz, tsz, dzz, with rh,
and the nasals m, n, ng, also the strong aspirate h'; also the
three aspirated mutes p', k', t\ and ng at the beginning of a
syllable.

5. The native arrangement of the alphabet, as found in
the tables prefixed to K'ang-hi's Dictionary, is borrowed
from the Sanscrit.'^ The natural order of the letters as form-
ed by the organs of speech, is as far as possible preserved, and
the system adopted contrasts advantageously with the irre-
gularity of the English and other alphabets. The pronun-
ciation there registered is what Chinese authors call the ^ ^
Nan yin, Southern pronunciation, as it was early in the
Christian era. It probably agrees in the main with the mo-
dern speech of Su-cheu, Hang-cliu and the surrounding cities.
That the pronunciation of Shang-hia is one of its dialects, ap-
pears from the slightest examination of the tables in question.
It is characterized by the same division into Tin and Yang, i. e.

* Vide Preface to Morrison's Dictionary, and Marshman's Clavis Sinica.
None of the western alphabets appear to have been so scientllically arranged
as the Sanscrit..

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PART I. gUCTION 1. ALPHABET.

hard and soft, or thin and broad consonants, which form the
basis of arrangement, in those tables, and agrees in many of
the details. Vide Appendix on K'ang-hi's tables of Initials
and Finals.

6. In the native system, while the consonants are accur-
ately distinguished, the initial vowels are placed together,
under only two heads. In this respect therefore, we depart
from it in the following' table. The initials sh, zh, ch, f,
and some others are also omitted as not applicable to our
dialect. The imperfect nasal consonants are inserted, though
as local variations they have no place in the native tables.
In naming the classes, western terms have been adopted.

Tabular view of the alpJiahetic sounds of the Shdiighdi
dialect.

Fifteen vowels.

Thirty three consonants.

Quantity of syll.

Value.

a father

a hand, back

au Vau\

6 May

e let

eucottsin

I marine

i sing

6 go

long, lock

Gothe

u rule

u swn, swck

ii Tubingen

as in ^ sp

1
1

11
J
11

oi
to

High.

Low. 1

long or short.

.do.

long

do.

short

long

do.,
long or short

do.

do.

do.^

long
long or short

long

do.

H

k
t
P

f

s

sz

tz

tsz

h'

1

-i

2

tM

n
m

ni

1
rh

-1^

\^

1— 1

ng
n
m

k-

t'

p'

ts'
ts'z

b

V

z
zz
dz

dzz
h

If from these consonants, we subtract the combinations of
t and d, with s and z, the aspirated mutes, and ni, as capable
of resolution, there remain twenty three in all. Of those
that are left, sz and zz may also be supposed to be made up
of s, z, and an indistinct vowel i*, heard in English after the
1 of beetle, needle, etc.

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n

THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Section 2. On the Tones.

7. In order to determine the position of the Shanghai
patois among the dialects of China, something must be said
on tones generally. Chinese pronunciation may for our pres-
ent purpose^ be considered in three or more general divisions,
according to the number of tones.

(1.) The first of these is the Northern mandarin. :}[i §
Pih yin, where four or five tones are in use. It is the pro-
nunciation of the Emperor's court, and professedly of the
government officers throughout the empire. It is also spoken
in considerable purity in the parts north of the Yang tsz
Ki^ng (hence its name), and in the provinces of Sz-ch'uen,
Kwei-cheu, Ytin-nan, and parts of Kwangsi and Hunan.

(2.) The second is the Southern pronunciation, ]§ ^ Nan
yin, spoken in the part of Kiang-su, tliat is south of the
Yang-tsz'-kiang, in Ch^h-kiang and part of Kidng-si. This
is mainly the pronunciation out of which the mandarin grew
and which is followed in the Dictionaries, from K'ang-hi up-
wards, nearly to the Han dynasty/* The tones are four in
number, each subdivided into kau and ti, upper and lower,
or as they are also denominated yin and yang, feminine and
masculine. These upper and lower series of tones are also
distinguished, by different initial consonants, the one taking
g, d, b, V, z, etc., and the other k, t, p, f, s, etc. The
variations that exist even between contiguous districts, are
very numerous, a circumstance which furnishes a mark of dis-
tinction between this part of China and the mandarin pro-
vinces, where orthographical differences are few.'

(3.) The pronunciation of the other provinces presents
many extensive departures from the true mandarin. The
tones are seven or eight in number, and are often found in-

* Vide in K'ang-hi, the Fan-ts'eih spelling, quoted from the previously ex-
isting Dictionaries. In K'ang-hi's table of sounds, the former model is to
'some extent departed from, in favour of the Northern mandarin. The terms
nb "W l« W are common both in books, and in the conversation of the
natives. Mandarin pronunciation has also its dictionaries, such as ^ IJ^T
!7C ^7 ^^^ it Js the old tonic dictionaries and new works founded on theiu
to which reference is here made.

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PAUT I. SECTION 2. ON THE CHINESE TONES. 7

verted in position, as well as contradictory in nature to the
names they bear. The Fuh-kien and Canton dialects have
long been the subject of foreign study, and have received
abundant illustration. Ngto-hwei and Kiangsi have also
many eccentricities of pronunciation.

8. The tones may be partially described according to their
natural character. In attempting this, we intentionally avoid
for the present, the usual Chinese terras ^ Jl -^ A P^^Si
even, zang, rising, k'ti^, going, zeh, entering, because, being the
same in all dialects, they do not in the majority of cases, re-
present the actual effect of the sounds on the ear. When first
adopted in the reign of Liang wa ti, A. D. 402 to 450, they
must have represented the tones of the dialect, spoken by
Shen yoh*^ the wiiter who selected them a native of Hu cheu
only 100 miles from Shang-hai. But when applied according
to universal practice, to the sounds given to the same charac-
ters in other parts of the empire, these four names convey no
idea of the actual pronunciation. The descriptions given of
the tones by native authors, are consequently often incom-
prehensible.

A. Upper acute tone. We pronounce monosyllabic words,
when speaking with moderate emphasis, in a quick descend-
ing tone. It is heard in commands as Go, Fire, Go at once.
In naming any object, English speakers usually adopt this
intonation for a monosyllable, or the penultimate of a dissylla-
ble. It might be called the affirmative tone. It represents
the J: .^ z^ng^ bing, or upper first tone at Shilng-hdi and
Su-cheu, as 5^ t'ien, heaven; while in the dialect of Amoy,
it is the second, and in the mandarin of Pe-king, the first
tone.

B. Upper even tone. This is a sound without deflection
like along note in music, ^nd is not so common in English
conversation as the former. When high in key, it is in Shang-
hai the upper second tone, as in yjc sz, toater; ^ hu, Jire, i
t'u, ear^i. In Sz-ch'uen mandarin, and in the Fuh-kien of.
Amoy, it is the upper first tone.

* Shen yoh ^ $5 was high in favour witli the emperor Liang wu ti whose
capital was Nanking. Nan shi |H ^ c. 57.

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8 THE SHANGHAI DiAtECT.

0. Upper quick rising tone. This is nearly like the stac-
cato of musical notation, and is usually heard in inteijections
of surprize and indignation, and frequently in questions. If
quick and high, it is in Shdng-hde the upper third tone, as ^
sing, a letter, ^ ts*^, vegetables. In Pe-king mandarin, it is
the lower first tone.

D. Upper slow rising tone. This is a prolonged intona-
tion rising more slowly than the last, and is not needed for
the Sh^ng-hfte dialect.

E. Upper short tone. This is the intonation of syllables
short in quantity. Long and short quantity may be predi-
cated of vowels or of syllables. In Latin, the short a of m-d-
giSf becomes long by position in magnus. The converse of
this example takes place in Shdng-h^i pronunciation, where
the long and short a and o are all found in a short tone.**
In such cases, we write them all with a final h; the presence
or absence of the accent marking the quantity /)f the vowel,
while that of A marks the quantity of the syllable; as in ^
B^h, wet; g| sah, in Pa sah, disciple of Buddha; §§ k'oh,
weep; ^ oh, wicked. This tone might be divided into two,
as it ascends or descends ; but as only the former occurs in
ShSng-hdi sounds, we count but one of these, to avoid too
great subdivison.

F. Lower acute tone. In proceeding to tones in a lower
pitch of voice, we enumerate them in an order corresponding
to that followed above; thus the same natural description,
except as regards key, will readily apply to them. The lower
acute tone is not needed for the Shanghai sounds, except in
cases, of combination. In the Sa-cheu dialect, it represents the
lower second tone, while in Fuh-kien, if set very low, it will
be the upper third tone.

G. Loiver even tone. A low musical sound without de-
flection. It is the lower first tone at Shang-h^i, as in fg nung,
can. :9| m^, hury. In the mandarin of Ndn-king, it is the
upper first tone, while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the lower
third tone.

* If different symbols were invented for the long and short vowels, so that
syllables only should be considered long and short, this anomaly Mould disa^)-
pear. All alphabets are deficient in vowel marks.

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PABT I. SBCTK>N 2. ON CHINESE TONES. 9

H. Lower quick rising tone. This intonation is nearly
that of any common word, when spoken interrogatively, as I?
Yes? Indeed? It is the lower third tojae of Shtog-h^i, ' and
the lower first of N^n-king and Amoy.

I, Lower slow rising tone. This is the intonation of re-
monstrance as in "Et tu Brute," if ^i were spoken in a deep
and rather lengthened tone. So in many antithetical sentences,
as ** We seek not yoftrs but yofi," the former accented word
is in a low slow rising tone, and the latter in a quick falling
tone. Writers on Elocution mark them with the grave and
acute, accents respectively.

J. Lower short tone. The remarks appended to the cor-
responding upper tone apply also to this, j^ ^ 7ioh dzih,
to learn and practice.

K. Upper circumflex. This is an intonation high in key
and having two deflections, apparently ascending and descen-
ding. It may be quick or slow in time. It is not used in
Shdng-hai pronunciation. When slow it is the second tone
of Nan-king.

, L. Lower circumflex. This corresponds to the preceding
in character and time, but diflfers from it in key. When
quick, it is the lower first tone of the district east of Sfl-cheu.

9. While selecting most of their tones from those thus
described, some dialects would require a more minute subdi-
vision, and perhaps two high and two low divisions of each
series might be found necessary. The preceding arrangement
however, will be sufficient to give some conception of the
variety of tonic effects, whether harmonious or discordant the
listener must judge, existing in the speech of China. If it be
recollected that independently of these differences in tones,
there are also numberless variations in the alphabetic form of
the sounds, an accurate knowledge of so Protean a language
might seem unattainable, were it not that the characters are
everywh^e the same. What one pronounces in a high shrill
accent, and another in a prolonged whine, and another in a
low musical intonation, they all write in the same form; and
if asked what is its tone, they give the same reply.

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10 THE SHANOHAI IMALBCT.

The Chinese have themselFes described the tones according
to their natural character. We quote the following transla-
tion ofsome verses in K'ang-hi's Dictionary, from Medhursfs
Hbk-kien Dictionary.

" The even tone travels on a l^el road, neither elevated nor depressed.
" The high tone exclaims alond, being fierce, violentj and strong.
"The departing tone is distinct and clear, gruffly travelling to a distance.
"The entering tone is short and contracted, being hastily gathered up."*

This description must be taken as answering to the tones
spoken by the native writer from whom it is taken.

10. The terms used by the Chinese to describe sounds in
reference to tones, are such as —

^ ^ kau ti, high and low (key oftlie tone).

^ [^ yun y^ng, high and low (key of the tone,)

H ^ win^ kih, slow and quick (time of the tone,)

Zp ffi ping tsdh, even, deflected. JK is further divided into
Jl ^ 7^ zang% k'u% zeh, rising, departing, entering.

To these we add to express quantity apart from tone: —

^ ^ dzang 'dw,t ^^ ^^^ short (time in reference to
the syllables).

These terms include all the principles, on which our ar-
rangement of natural tones has been made : thus —

The first two pairs define the upper and lower tones.

The third pair embraces differences in time, the quick and
slow tones.

The fourth pair includes even tones and those having de-
flections, which may rise or fall, and be one or two in
number.

The fifth pair distinguishes the three first tones from the
fourth. ^

f This is one of the words where d is heard in the upper series instead of t.
Other cases of departures from the usual law will be subsequently pointed
out.

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PART I. SECTION 2. ON TONES.

11

In an article in the Chinese Repository on the Birmese
and Shan languages (Vol. V. page 71), there are some facts
respecting tones as employed in those countries. The Shans,
inhabiting the country that separates Birmah from China,
have two deflected tones rising and falling respectively, two
tones short in quantity also rising and falling, and a low
even tone..

The Birmese have the two deflected tones, and one short
tone.

The Shan language is fundamentally the same as the
Siamese, which also has tones,

11. TABLE OF TONES IN SEVERAL DIALECTS.*

i, MANDARIN TONES. :ft ^

Tones

Upper first,

Second,

Third,

±

Fourth, A

Lower first, __ T^ 2p

Nan-king

1, e,
I, s, r,

sh,

1, q^ h

I

Pe-king

u, e, or

«, q, f,
1, q» r,

1, q. f,

u, e,

1, q, r,
1, q, f, &c.

1. q» r,

Ho-nto
K'ai-fang

Sz-ch'uen

u, q, e,

1, q, r,
1, q. f,

u, q, e,
\ q, r,
1, q, h

1, q, r,

u, e,

q. f>

1, s, r,
1, q, e, or

h q. f>

1, q, e, or

h q, f.

U. KIANa-NAN AND CHEH-KIAN6.

ToniBs,

•

Su-cheQ

Shdng-h&i

Ning-p6

PCZ2

First,.... J: 2p
Second,.. Jt J:
Third, -J:^
Fourth,.. J: X

^, q, f,

u, e,
u, s, r,
u, sh.

«, q, i',
u, e,

•J, q, r,

u, sh,

«, q. f,

u, s, r,
u, e,
u, sh,

O <D

First, y 3p

Second,., "p" _t
Third. ..T^
Fourth,., -f X

1, q, r,

}» q, f,

1, s, r,
1, sh.

1, e,
1, s, r,

h q, r,
1, sh,

I, s, c, q, f,
1, s, r,
1, s, r, or e,
1, sh,

* u, upper. 1, lower, r, rising, f, falling, q, quick, s, slow, e, eveu.
c, circumfiex. sh, short.

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12 THE SHANGHAI DULECT.

iii. ruH-KiEN.

Tones.

Amoy and Chang-cheu.

Upper first,

u, e,

do. second,

u, q, f,

do. third,

l,f.

do. fourth.

l,sh,f, .

Lower first,

1, q, r,

do. second,

u, q, f,

do. third,

l,e,

do. fourth.

u, sh, f,

12. Nan-king is here placed among those that belong to
the 4b h" ^^ Northern Mandarin division. A native author '^
says, that this city and two others f^ |^ Hwai y^ng and ^
}§ Sii hai use the northern pronunciation.

The large Dictionaries are uniform in the adoption of the
pronunciation in our (ii.) division, as their basis of spelling.
They usually speak of only four tones, distinguishing the up-
per from the lower by the initial letter. This is also the uni-
versal practice among the educated class viva voce. They do
not speak of ^ ti* emperor and J|| di' earth, as different in
tone, the one the upper third tone, the other the lower, but
as different in the alphabetical form ti, dt.

The division into eight tones is preferable for a foreign
reader, because (1) there is a difference in elevation of voice,
^ ti' being at an interval of a fourth in the musical scale
more or less, higher than J| di^ (2) Although the third
and fourth tones, upper and lower, are deflected at Slidnghdi
in a similar way, so that they may be regarded as the same
tones, this is not the case with the first and second, which
differ decidedly in character.

The fourth tone in the 4b ^ ^^^ 7^°? ^^^^^ (^O ^s in the
Northern provinces, long in quantity. The words included
under it are distributed among the other tones, and must be
learnt separately, in order that they may be correctly pro-
nounced; e. g. of words written chuh, some such as fj:, ^, j^
■ — — 1

* Vide ^ JS *& ffi- The author was a native of Peking.

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PABT h SECTION III. ON TONES. 13

are at K'ai-fong-fu in the upper first tone, while ffjij fj, R^
are in the Ipwer first tone.*

SECTION 3. ON THE SHANGHAI TONES,

13, We shall illustrate the tones one by one with numerous
examples, adding a translation for the use of those who wish
to acquire at the same time, a vocabulary of common phrases.
We have hitherto regarded tones as they are heard, when the
sound is enunciated emphatically and single. But there are
certain changes which occur in combinations of two or more
words in rapid conversation, which can be only explained by
examples of such groups arranged in separate columns. In
the observations appended to each table, the more prominent

* The analogy between the Chmese tones and the Greek accents probably
led the Catholic Missionaries to call the former aecmtta. The distinction be-
tween accent and quantity which existed in Greek, has been found also in
Sanscrit in the Vedas. (Vide Bopp's Sanscrit Grammar, section 80.) In both,
there were three accents, acute, grave and circumflex. The grave is described
as the negation of the acute and to be understood where that mark is not writ-
ten. The acute was a rising in tone ; while the circumflex is said to have raised
and depressed the tone on the same syllable. (Vide Valpy's, Greek Grammar.)
Taking accent and quantity together, we obtain four distinctions of sound,
which is the nominal number of tones in Chinese. The fundamental diflference
in the structure of polysyllabic and monosyllabic languages prevents the ana-
logy from being carried far; the tones in one case being fixed to syllables, and
in the other to words. But when it is remembered that those two branches of
the great Indo-European stem are among the most ancient of languages, not
much later in origin than the Chinese itself, and one of them its geographical
neighbour, the fact of these delicate differences of sound existing till now in
that language, becomes interesting as throwing light on some of the most pre-
cious remains of the literature of the past. Grammarians would not speak with
such hesitation, as they do, when describing these peculiar intonations of the
civilized races of the old world, if they had heard and could discriminate the
Chinese tones. Late speculations on the change in language-forming power
that has taken place in modem times, have referred to the gradual diminution
of inflexions in new languages, and to other circumstances, as instances of it.
From these has been argued the decay of a certain faculty once possessed by
the human race. The limited use of accents fixed to words in newly-formed
languages, may be viewed as another illustration of it. Clearly-marked alpha-
betical differences, as now preferred to those nicer distinctions of sounds, which
perhaps were familiar alike to the most cultivated branches of the Great Arian
family, and to the ancient and modem Chinese. It may be added that the use
of many of the Hebrew accents is but imperfectly known in modem times.

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14

THE SHANGHAI DULBCT.

of these variations will be pointed out, and the place of the
accent determined,*

The vowel marks employed in this work are repeated here,
that the eye of the reader may be familiarized with them : —

Long vowels.

Short vowels.

Other vowels.

d rather.
6 my.

5 read.

6 road,
u rude.

a sang,
e set.
i stng.
song,
n swng.

au Pattl.

eu asing^eu*

Gothe.

a verttt.

d as in ff m.

In writing mandarin, the following will also be used : —
au dy M, combined, Prolongation of au.
eii cow. Prolongation of eu,

ei kine. The Greek, ei.

The accents denote long vowels, and a symbol is never
used for more than one sound. This is the principle of the
orthography usually called Sir W. Jones' system. It was
proposed by the Hon. J, K, Morrison in 1836, in the Chi-
nese Repository, (vol, 5, page'*[22), for application to the
Chinese language. For this part of China, modifications are
needed in the details, and hence the differences in the system
here adopted, from that described by the writer of that arti-
cle, and in Williams' Chinese Vocabulary, etc.

The long vowels all have, what is called in England, the
Italian pronunciation.

The sound eu is something like the French eu in dou?ewr,
or the common short English u as in bwn prolonged. For
the corresponding mandarin sound eu as in P' 'k'ea. Pre-
mare uses eou, and Klaproth eu ; from them we have bor- ^
rowed it. In the lengthened form, it is a diphthong eu or
uu, as in English qIouA,. The shorter form eu has no exact .r
English equivalent. *►

* In an Essay on tlie Hok-kien tones by the Rev. S. Dyer of Malacca, des-
criptions of them with a musical notation are given. Tables of examples for
groups of two like those we now give, but without the Chinese characters, are
annexed.

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PABTI. SECTION UI. SHANaHAI TONES. 15

14, The upper first tone. This is the common quick fall-
ing sound, usually given in English pronunciation to any
monosyllable when standing alone, and spoken with empha-
sis.

JK kwo, meloiu ^ tsung, hell.

JS fong, wind. ^ tu, many,

% k'iung, light. fR ft, to fly.

That it may be readily compared with the other tones, by
such as have a native assistant at hand, some examples are
here given of the same alphabetical sound, varied according
to the four upper tones.

# « i^ ic hrhi hi^ hih
^ M ip ^ *<i 't<i *<i' toh,

*5f ^ ii 5S k'« 'k'u k'u^ k'oh.
In the fourth word of each series, the vowels change, I
into i, and u info 6. The Chinese regard them as different
only in tone; to a foreign ear, the difference is one both of
time, as the syllables are long and short, and of vowels sound,
as the long i becomes short i, and long u becomes long o.

15. As examples of conbination, take first those which
have the upper first tone in the penultimate, (p, s, k, j, in
roman type, represent the four upper tones in their order; in
italic type, the lower.)

Tones. Place of the Accent.

P- P? ^M ^^'^^ *sau, to-day^ ult.

ite St siang kong, seV, husbandj ^- „

X ^ kung fu, worhj pen.

^ 4* tong tsong, in the middle ^ ult.

p. s. ^'^i^iQnimg^ the zenith, ; „

® ^ ^^ ^sii, henef actor ^
p. k. ipfi jE tsun tsung, truly,.

^ ^ siang sing, believe, be fond of, „

^ ^ s^ng Fi, (c'h) sound of voice, pen.

p%j. ^ ^ tBxing'koh., China, — „

^ ft waii k'ioh, (c^h) winding, crooked, ult.

pp. ^ W^ *s6ng nicm, China, „

J^ <^ t' ten dong, heaven, „

^ >i? ttl sau, hoio many? „

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16 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Tones. Accent.
3S A ^'^ niun, a messenger, pen.

P- *• 35 8 *'i^ 1^ heavenly reason, ult.

f^ jjg tsong in6n, to pack full, „

gf ^ sing mi, new rice pen,

P» ^« ^ tt ^'^^» <ii> heaven and earth, ult,

^ g^ t'lew li^ng, daybreak, , „

^ T^ h'i4ng au, in the country, .-. pen.

P-J* SI ^ f6ngz6h, custom, ult.

^ 1^ sing zah, village near Shanghai, «. „

Obs. In this table, the tone preserves its natural charac-
ter throughout, but when followed by the quick rising tones,
as in p, k, and p, k, or by the short tones, or by a word hur-
ried over without emphasis on account of its unimportance,
it is heard with a more distinct accent than in other cases.
When the accent is upon the other word, this tone needs
to have the voice rest upon it for a time, to prevent its be-
coming the third tone.

The tone which is the same as this in the Amoy dialect,
undergoes a regular change, in combinations such as those in
this table. When standing first of two words, it becomes
an upper quick rising tone. Thus though a tone be identi-
cal when pronounced alone in two dialects, it does not follow
that its laws of combination are also the same. For much
important information on the Hok-kien tones, and the laws
of combination in that dialect, the writer is indebted to Kev,
J. Stronach of Amoy.

16, Examples of the upper first tone in the antepenulti-
mate or when first in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.

p. p. I?. ]^ ffl A Sti-tseu niun, a Su-cheH man, .. ult.

p. s.jp. 3^ ^ ^ t'ien-tsCl dong, Boman Catholic

Chapel, 5,

p. k, k. ^ i5 ^ t'iau ki'i-k'i, carry it past, ant.

p. j. i. ^ # ft tong tuh-dzCl, able to stand against, „

p. jp. jp. ^ ^ Si tsau-zun deu, in the morning, .- „

p. «• k. ff: M ^ ts'iew-li kiung, telescope, ult.

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PART I. 8H0TI0N 3. fiHANQHAI TONES, 17

Tones. Accent,
P? *. p. H ^ 85 san-zz' kiung, the Three Charac-
ter Gldssic, Tilt*

p./. i. H ^ Jl tsOi veh-zong, cannot overtake

hinij ant*

p. 8. s. ^ # ^^ tu-hau keu, a number of dogs,^^ „
Obs. i. In the example standing last but two, if j^ is ac-
cented, it preserves its proper character, but if, as is often the
case, ^ is accented, j^ becomes even and falls in pitch.

Obs, ii. The accent often varies between the first and the
last syllable. In regard to position, it is the latter that should
receive it. But in reference to tone, that now under illustration
admitting emphasis freely, 6verbears the accent of position.

17. Examples of upper first tone standing last in a com-
bination of two or three.

Tones. Accent

p. p. S i& ^^S ^^^Sy ^^^^ care, pen.

j^ ^ sau h'idng, hum incense ult.

s« P« Wl^ tsu ts6ng, ancestors J pea.

]g ^ ting tu, greatest number of, „

^ ^ kong sft, eicp?am ftooAs, „

7jC ^ sz tsing, roch crystal, ult.

'^^ P* !& >^ ^^^ ^^^Sy y^^^ honourable age'f...

jj^ >j5i fong sing, be content, ..,

j. p. SI ?B ^^'^ h.^0, insert flowers,

1^ ^ t'uktu, too many,

J?, p. 58 ]|IJ ming tsau, to-morrow, - pen.

^ ^ Mng sing, good heart, conscience,.^ „

k. ^. p. ^ M, % sS, zun-kwong, what time, ant.

«• P %WL ^^ ts'ingj mother, ult.

^ 51 lau hiung, venerated brother, „

fci *. p. ^ -^ tiion^, a place, „

>g: ^ niaTi kiung, chant sacred boohs, — ,,

j* P ^ S ^^^^ ^*^^S> contrary wind, „

Obs. In the groups p. p., s, p., and jp. p. in this table, the
tone of the last word falls and becomes even. In such cases,
the initial consonants remain unaffected. Thus, X ^ kung

3>

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*^ MB! SHANGHAI DULECT.

4fl cannot become kfing vu, though fu falls in key. The same
Change may sometimes be observed after the third and fourth

thr^^* ^"^"^^^^ ""^^^^ *'>°«' astlie secondinagrounof

Tones. ,

- 1 I MT ift. Apcent.

V ' £* ^ ^ ^^*" ^^^S-h small retail trade, . . pen.
• P-P- S X A ku-kong niun, workman,

J- P- 1. MM^ soh-yau td, waist-band, ■ [ ■ ',]

P-lp.k, ^^g^ vun-ts'ang dien, temple of the
patron of Literature,

s. p. p. ^ ,5 ^ niore sing-dzang, merciful heart, ult.

*• P- J- ft'^M ^a-yung koh, England, ant.

•^* P'-P- MM A tok-it niun, educated man, ult.

^ Obs. 1. There is a secondary accent on some other syllable
m groups of three, which sometimes predominates over the
owier. We have not attempted to record more than one. E. g
m the antepenultimate of the last example is often heard
with a decided accent.

Obs. ii. An inspection of these tables will shew that the
first tone attracts the accent to itself in many instances, and
that through rapidity of pronunciation, or from the accent
being placed on the word before, it tends to fall in key and
become even.

Obs iii. In regard to position the accent prefers the last
syllable.

19. The upper second tone. It is a high even tone with-
out deflection, and forms a principal element in producing
that curious singing effect in many dialects, which the foreigner
notices in first listening to Chinese pronunciation, ■ ■

Ex. i^ sz, water. j^ hau, good.

^hu,/re. %i t'&n, beg.

It te, promise. 1^ tiew, point (verb or subs.) '

20. Examples of the upper second tone standing last in a
group of two or thiee.

^<^°««- Accent.

p. s. ^, ^VLU iim, favour, pen.

®5 fS h'iung tsieu, intoxicated,

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99

99

PART I. SBCTIOH 3. SHANGHAI TONES. 1^

Tones. Accent.

8- Sr M yK kwun 8Z, boiling watery ..*..:- pen.

• . JK j^ ting hau, the best possible, „

t. s. Wc iK ^^^^ ^u, save from fire, ..- ult,

^ ^ yau kiun, important, „

J- s. if, i tsok tsu, ^0 be master,,^ „

m ^ ts'eh seu, accuser, „

P- s. p^ p mun k'eu, door-way , , „

f^ -^ dze tsu, rich man^ ------^. „

«. s. ' , ^ 55 mieW k'iang, by compulsion^ (c*h)-- •„

35 81 ni tu, ear5, ' ,,

X;. 8. "jg'JLmieTiFongj/ace, « ,^

/. s. ||f ^ zeh seu, maimed handy

^ ^ Wi pun, a?ma7iac, -

'p.y. 8. j^ ife Vjc sau nyih sz, prepare hot water, .

j9. k. 8. PS ^ M ^ y^^ kiun, not important, ant»

J. j. s". ^ ^ >^ veh k'ioh sau, 7iot deficient, (c4i) ult.

/ J- s' ^ # ^ «eli kweh tsz, ^tj reality, pen.

Obs. i!^ Tlie last syllable, wheii preceded by a word in the
Tipper first tone, is usually heard to fall in key, as in the first
two of the above examples.

'Dbs. ii. in some examples, the tone under illustration of-
ten changes into a quick falling tone, as in ^ >J(J kieu* 'hii,
pronounced kieu^ h'u", and ^ gg pronounced m\Qn' k'iang.

'21. Examples of the upper second tone in the antepenul-
timate. " "

Tones. " Accent.

s. p, p. %% % ^ ts'ing sie?i-sdng, engage a teacher, ant.
'8. 8. p." :^ ^ A Fa^ kii-niun, be examined for

Master of Arts degree,:, pen,

8. 8. h. ^ 'ifi TF.seu tl-au, xinder {my) control,, j ant.
8. j.k. ^ 511$ tdng k'eh-ts'ong, nod the head

tvhen sleeping, .-. nit.

"8,^.^^ i^ Ife 19^ hu-lun z6w, steamer, „ ■

8. i, k, i, M M *'u-di miau, temple of the Lares

arvales, --.----- „

S.J. B. ^ ^ i& k'au-veh-k'i, cannot venture to
be examined)

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99

20 TSB SSAHOHAt mALEOT.

Obs, For purposes of accentuation *p, ^, and ^ in the
above examples may be called enclitics or proclitics. As
such they leave the emphasis to rest on the significant
words.

22. Examples of ihe second tone in the penultimate of a
group of two.

Tones. Accent.

s. p. >J^ ^ siau kdw, a hoy, ult,

i i li'i ^^^n, glad, „ „

j* s. s. |& {g :^ ^&h kwun-sz, «im2>?y boiling

tt?a^er (weak tea), ^^

tr !K *^^g *^^^> **<>o^ birds, „

TJC ^ sz seu, sailors,

6* k, 5f K P*^ 'p^y precious,

II 15: ts'ing kiau, will you inform me ? .. „

^h M siau ts'^, vegetables, ..«. ,,

6-J- 1^ ^^'6 sih, alas! pen,

1^ ^ h'iau tuh, understand, „

fX ^ tang t'ilj, work in iron, ._ idt.

8-i>- :^ ^ sz nieu, water buffalo,

;0jc it pan dzien, preserve, ,

7)C |@ sz dong, water bucket,

s. s. ^ fg k'a nau, unfortunate^

^ jif tau m^ii, pour full, ^...

s. i. ffi :;fe tan dfl, courageous,

H U t'i mien, respectable, -^

IS ^ ts'ing zQ,^7ea5e sit down,

s-/ 3^ M ts'i^ng doh, ro6 and plunder, .„.

5f -S pan zah, precious stone,

Obs, The accent is usually on the last word, and it is
especially marked when that word is in the first or third
tone. When the penultimate assumes the accent, it fre-
quently changes to the upper rising tone, but this is appar-
ently nojjhing more than an occasional irregularity, produced
by rapid pronunciation. Native assistants generally deny
the existence of these and all such changes; but oh having
their attention drawn more closely to the subject, they admit
that there are exceptional ^^ses.

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PABT I. SBCnON 3. SHANQBAI TONBS. 21

23. Examples of the same tone standing second ina
group of three.

Tones, , Accent.

P* ^3- P« jS iff ^ *sa tsii-st6ng, sacrifice to ancestors^ ult.

8. s. k, Jfc ifc § P^~Pi k'o», compare ihem, „

k. s.y. {£^ j^ B tsd hau-nyih, keep a wedding ^^^ pen,

' j. s. jp. — ^iC SB ih-pun devLjjtcst one volume ^ ult.

jp: s. jp. M "!& M, dzing sz wongf the emperor who

burnt the books ^ , „

k. s.y. ^ IS jji zz-tsz loh, written-paper basket j „

j. s. p. 11 is ^ I6k k'i-16, stand up, „

Obs. i. The penultimate is heard higher in key than the

others. The last falls, but retains the principal accent more

or lesi distinctly.

Obs. ii. The secondary accent is usually on the first word,

except in the example {£^ i^ B 9 where the penultimate word

changes into an upper rising tone, and receives the accent.

24. The upper third tone. This tone being both high in
key and .deflected upwards, is difficult to imitate correctly.

Ex. ^ tsong, bury. §| plan, change. ^"i^^four.

•sj' ts'un, inch, fj^ mig, family name. J^ tien, shop.

Examples of this tonei'in the penultimate of a combina-
tion of two.
Tones. Accent,

k. p. ^ j§L i sz, object, idea, .- pen.

^ '^ k'on sO, to read, - ult.

^ |g tsong hwo, plant cotton ox flowers, „

k. s. ]K i'C f^J^g ^^> ^^^ onfircy pen.

^ jt kiung i^z, forbid, „

^'^' ^ ft ^^ kwe, rich and honourable, ult,

fJC f l| kiau h'itin, instruct, „

t, j. 9& i^ ^ sihj love and pity, « „

^ ^ kii h'ih, at present, ..

t. 2>. ^ ii sOn b6n, Chinese abacus,, - :

fJC P^ kiau mun, form of instruction ^

^- ^- tfi ?& P'^ ^^°g> afraid of cold, ,,

JSk 1^ k'wa mo, a swift horse, ,,

99
99
99

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22 THE SHAKGHAl WALECT.

Tones. Accent.

k. i. S ffi d^ mIeTj, ihe opposite, ult.

^ ^ sftri ming, ^o calculate destiny, „

k*/ ^ ^ ^^ lihj strength, pen.

^ ^ tsQ zub, he <i thief, ult.

Obs. i. It may be useful as an aid to memory, to notice
that verbs are very numerous in this tone. The majority of
the above examples will illustrate this remark.

Obs. ii. In the first example 3|f i is irregular, and is pro-
nounced in the first tone.

Obs. iii. When the accent is decidedly on the last word,
as in most of the examples, the penultimate is very short
and pronounced with the least possible emphasis.

Obs. iv. In the examples k, k, the penultimate word is in
rapid pronunciation, heard even, like the second ton^. Thus
M* MS* ^ pronounced 'tsau yung*.

25. Examples I of the same tone, as the antepenultimate
of three words.

Tones, . Accent.

^. p. s. ^, ^ ^g tsau kw6-ku, /o?7ot6; the custom^ pen.

k. s. k. ^ >J> % tsong siau-ts'e, plant vegetahles, „

k. k. i. "K IS^ J: sz-ka long, in the world, - - ult.

k J* i>. JR ffi 235 P'^ ts'eh-le, place in divisions , - ant.

k. p, k. p§ ^ ^ s^ zz-eu, lohat time / - - - - ^^

t. i>. P* WLlk^ *su zung-k6ng, to complete, - - ult.

k. 5. 5. ^ ^ # kiung 'vu-mfl, reverence parents, „

k*y. h. ^ ^ Wl ^^ veh-dong, cannot carry, - - ant.

Obs. To keep the first word short in time, and deflected
upwards, is the chief requisite in examples of this kind. If
the voice were allowed to rest on it, it would necessarily be-
come the first or second tone,

26. Examples of thq upper third tone standing last of
two or three words.

Tones, ' Accent.

p. k. ^ Jg sftng i, trade, pen.

yg^ ^ t6ng hsin, eastivards, ----.- ^^
^ '^ song k'wa,"m grooc?Aea7^7i, ... ^^

s. k. % iM si^ sing, twite a letter, - - - - ult.

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PART I. BBCTION 3. 8HAN0HAI TONES. 23^

»

Tones. Accent,

If ^ tang stln, consider^ pla% - - • pen.

fc k, jE is tsung p'd, correct conduct ^ - - * ult.

^ ^ tsu h'i, ac^ a jp?ay, ----- „

j- k» # S6 *^1^ ^ oJ^aw one's wishes^ - - - ,,

^ ^ seh sing, Je unfaithful^ - - - - ,,

Pt k- ^ ^ i^ong tf, emperor^ - - . - • ^^

fSJ -^ t(;6 sing, letter in answer ^ - - - „

^- ^' Jii ^ 1^ P^, worship^ ------ ^,

J^ ^ mo kw6, yac^e^, ------ ^^

ft. k. iS ffc '2Jau hwo yfortun<itely, to crecUe^ - „

Jl ^ « ka, houndary^of land^ - - - • ^^

IP ig z6 ki% siTj, an impropriety^ - - pen.

k,y. k. - ^ ^ ^ k'oTi veh-kie?i, cio wo^ 5ee, - - ant.

jp.j\k. ^ ^ j5 yau veh-kil, cannot row j>astj - „

y k. k, :^ ^ tfi veh-yau p'6, c?o not fear ^ - - pen.

y. j, t :^ jS 5iE veh suh-!, not in healthy - - - iilt.

5. B. k, Ji^ >J\ ^ Idng siau t»'6, co?c? vegetables ^ .. „
Obs. i. The almost unbroken regularity of the accent in

these examples, arises partly from the last word being the
proper place for it, and partly from the tone under illustration
being naturally adapted to receive it,

Obs. ii. In the examples p, k, the last word falls in key,
and its upwatd deflection and initial consonant remain un-
affected.

Obs. iii. The examples k, k, follow the same law as in Art.
24, Obs, iv. In ^ ^ the former word being merely an auxi-
liary particle, is short in time as if it were t^ng*.

27. Examples of the upper third tone as the penultimate
in a group of three.

Tones, Accent.

p. k. ^. g aS ^ ta^i ku-l6, bring it over, - ant.

s. k. k. :^ ^ ^ sia-sing k'i, se7id a letter y „

k. k. 8. jM i^ !!£ si-si ll, accurately, „

j. k. i. jSi & ^ t'uk ku-vun, excessive. , ult.

p, k. j. m ig, ^ nan ku-h'ih, at present, „

6, k. k. g| '^ J: li-singlong, according to reason, ant.
1c.]l. p, ^ ^^ y\ yen pew ba/j, right-hand side, .. lilt.

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24 THE SHAHOHM PULSOT.

. Tones, Accent

J. k. j; '^ S ^. veh kie» tuh, it is not likely , — - pen.

* Obs. i. The middle word is always carefully shortened in
tone,

Obs, ii. When the last word is one of less significance than
the others, it Ireq^uently loses the accent.

28. TM upper fourth tone. This tone is a short syllable,
high and bent upwards.. It has k final after the vowels &, 6,
0, u, after other vowels k is not heard.

Ex. j^ kok, horn; ^j k'uk, quarter of an hour; ^ fah, method.

Examples in which it is the first of a group of two.
Tones. " Accent.

■ J* P* }ii ^ *8'eh sun, ranh or professionj - - ult.

S ® ^^^ ^^^^y ^^'^c? rising^ - - • - ^^

!• s. iMI S ^ok h'ieri, lightning^ * - - - - ,,

ffjgl ts'eh ts'anjfeM productions," - - „

j. k. - iff ^ p^k sing, people (hundred names,) - „

j-j* ^ gij fah tsuh, T^ie^AocZ, „

yp* til PI ts'^h mun, to go from home,- '^ - „

^ /^ k'kh niun, stranger, guest, - - - pen,

fM H k'eh deu, to make a prostration, - nit.

' j- ^» Kl BR ^^^ nga«, blind eyes, ----- „

' j* '^' IS ^ sug zz, a5?e ^o reac?, -----*„

^ Jl tseh df, natural powers, - - - - „

* k.y. }K 5K k'weh «h, width, (broad, narrow,) - pen.

^ ^ kweh ni6h, blood relations, - - - „

Words of the fourth tone naturally short, are here in a po-
sition unfavourable for the accent. Even the few cases of
exception marked, do not take it exclusively on the penul-
timate.

29. Examples of the same tone in the antepenultimate.
Tones. ' Accent.
J. p. s. '^^ M t'eh-I liang, with him,- - - - ult.
J- s. i>. IS 11 ^ sok ts6w-le, return," - - - - ^,
J* k. j, ^ iS -Sfc peh-kii-h'ih, given, - - . . ant.
j.k.p. ©fe T 3^ *^^ 'a\i"lk,fall down, - . - - ult.

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PARTI. SECTION in. SHANGHAI TONES. 25

Tones. Accent.

3' P' V' Sfi JSR X *si^h zung-k6ng, completely woven, ult.
j. s. j- }ft S 'fe *'^^ gnaw suh, ^aiw^ on colours , pen.
J/ J^- ^ ^ IS koh-loh deu, corner y - - - - ult.
The secondary accent is on the first syllable in these ex-
amples.

30. Examples of this tone standing last of two or three
words.

Tones, Accent.

P-J* ^'Qi V ten anhy weather, ----- pen.

^ glj fun pih, difference, ----- ,,
s. j. ^3^ sen pih, hand-writing , - - - - ult.

5S ^ P^^ *'^^> pagoda, ----- ^^
1^- J- ^ S sOn fah, method of calculation^ - „
J- J- Ife 5^ k'iuk tsoh, eat rice water, - - - „
P' J- BI ^ ^eu fah, hair, pen.

j5E ^ dzun sah, 6e drowned, - - - - ,,
^- j- M ^ g^^"^ suh, colour, ,,

£ + wgr seh, V/^y,

k.j. Zl + ni seh, twenty, ------

^ ^ ling sih, parsimonious, - - -
J- j- i^ ?IS ^^^'^ sah, 6e drowned, - - , - - ult.

;a: ^J lih k'uh, immediately, - - . -
P--i^- j- "Sft ^ # ku leu kweh, scull, - - - -
i^- P- j- U^^ lung hwo fah, Lung-hwd pagoda.
In the first two examples, the penultimate being in the
upper first tone, the last word may be heard to fall in key.

In those marked h, j, the first word is lengthened in pro-
nunciation, and thus passes into the lower second tone.

31. Examples of the upper fourth tone standing second
in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.

p. j. J?- Ifl ffi 5$J t'6 t'seh-l6, investigate, - - - ult.

s- j- P- ^W^ M P^u k6k-kia, defend one's country, „

'^^ j- j- ^ # # p6-tsih kweh, back-bone^ - - „

♦ The character "Y is read zeh. The sound seh as heard in conversatkm
is irregular.

99

99

Digitize'd by LjOOQIC

26 TOS SHANQSAI DULBCT.

Tones. Accent,

3'3'P- II tt H kiak tsih-deu, toes, - - - - . „
jp. j. k. |4 # tjiP^^ tuh-dong, able to walTc, - ant.
Aj, j, s. IS # # ^6 tuh-hau, well spoken, - - ,,
J*3'P' (S ^ PI ^S*'^ koh-deu, /oreAearf, - - nit.
The secondary accent may often be distinctly heard on the
first word in these examples.

32. A few examples of large groups are here appended.
Tones. , Accent

p. p. 8. s. f^f^^^ ts'ing-ts'ing song-song, distinct.
•p. k.j. &,' I'Si :^ fii JH tsong-hiau tsih ni, fidelity, filial

piety, chastity and uprightness,
j. k. j. k. # ^ J^ jS kok-tau-lok-ts'ti, everywhere,*
8. s. p. p. ^ ^ ]0( SC h'l-h'l hw^n-hw^n, glad,
.k,k.k,k. JE JE is M tsung-tsung p'd-p'^, good conduct,
j^j^j-j* BS'fcHIA hah-t'sih hah-pa^ all in confusion,
j.j.j.5. 4ittA^ tsHh-k'ioh pah-niau, winding about,
•p.j\ s. s. s. ^ Tf: :;JC i/iC i ki^ii ^ok sfti ha t'u, metal,

wood, toater,fire and earth.
k.k.j.k. s. ^ id ^ fg ^ k'on-kii-h'ih- kQ-t86 have seen
it.

P-i>- j- 3'J* W 31 # M 6 *'si°g ^^^^S ^'^^^ ^^ P^^7 ^^^>
yellow, red, blacky and white,

{),p.jp.j%p. 3K W I& fll + *^^g si ntn p6h tsong, 'east,
west, south, north and middle,

p. k. j. a, 8. |gj ^ ^ U ^ t'ing-ku-h'ih-la-ts^, I have
heard it,

For analysing such groups as these, all that would seem to
be necessary, is to divide them into smaller combinations.
Dissyllables and trisyllables may thus be formed, and linked
together by the hyphe^ji as above. They then fall under the
same laws as preceding examples, and the accent of position
will be usually on the last word.

When a number of particles are collected, as in k'on'-kii^-
h'ih-ku*-'ts6, they are heard like a word of five syllables with
an accent in the first and last syllables. The English words
acceptableness, peremptorily, necessarily, may be compared

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PART I. SECTION 2U. SHANGHAI TONES. 27

with examples of this kind; without the last two words, the
accent would be on the first and thirds

In the last example, the first accent is on fj( t'ing, the
second on ^ 1^, which being in a long tone, attracts it.

When there is a string of substantives together, as in en-
umerating the five colours, the five elements, the five constant
virtues, etc, more time is allowed for the pronunciation of
each. The hyphen has therefore been omitted in such cases.

33. Collecting these results, the following general remarks
may be made on the upper tones. *

I. The principal accent prefers the last syllable, but en-
clitic particles often reject it, while it is attracted most readi-
ly by the first and third tones.

The reverse of this is true at Ch'ii-p'u and H^i-ning to the
South-west of Shang-hai, where the penultimate takes the
accent,

II. A secondrfVy accent occurs in groups of three, which
rests on the most significant word, or on the tones naturally
requiring most stress of voice, the first and third.

III. An interchange takes places between the second and
third tones, when either of them stands before a word which
is the same in tone.

TV. The first tone becomes the lower first, i. e. even, low
and rising at the end, when standing last, if the word pre-
ceding takes the accent. After the third tone, upper and
lower, it does not vary.

V. The first tone is lengthened in time in the penulti-
mate, when the stress of the voice is on the last word, and the
third, when in that position, shortened.

VI, The upper tones tend to fall in key, where they come
after the first tone, and when they do so, always preserve
their initial consonants. After any other tone, they usually
keep their proper elevation.

34. In entering on the lower tones we meet with new con-
sonants, Gr, D, B, NG, N, M, L, E. The exceptions will be
found noticed in Art. 56.

Lower first tone. This is a long low tone deflected up-
wards at the end. East of the Hwang-p'u river and in the

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28 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

city of Shang-hai, this tone is as here described. But to the
westward of that river, the quick low circumflex very soon
takes its place, and is met with to the immediate neighbour-
hood of Su-cheu and Hang-cheu. It appears to consist of a
quick rising and quick falling tone pronounced rapidly to-
gether.

Ex. gijpong, sail; H long, dragon; f^ mun, door.

35. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combi-
nation of two.

Tones. * Accent.

P'V* Ji- It ^^^S sz', poetry of Tang dynasty ^ .. pen.

jSC ^ vun tsang, essays composed by rule^ „

p. s. ^M nga ts'z, teeth, „

^ X dzang kieu, long time^ „

i'* k. H ^ ping kti, evidencCy ------ ult.

IhI ^ ^ong sing, of the same name, - - „

P' J- 51 ^ ^eu fah, hair, ---*... ^^

P-P' 1? IS ^i»g z«^, ^top a boat, „

P'P' SI A ifciong niun, poor TTia?^, - - . . pen.

P' ^' jSC JH v^n li> elegance in style, - - - - ^,

^ ,B| ;^i mo, ^0 ride, ult.

/). k. ^ 1j^ w zong, pWe5^, ^^

gg S ^iang dau, ro66er,

i^^i- M B ti moh, a ^/ieme, --.--. pen.

^ ^ nieu nioh, beef, -

Obs. i. The accent is predominantly on the penultimate
word, and the lower first tone is thus seen to be one of those,
that attracts to itself the stress of the voice. In this con-
bination the penultimate is always carefully enunciated in a
low key,

Obs. ii. Where we have written t, k, p, the corresponding
soft consonants d, g, b, if the ear only were consulted, might
sometime be employed; but an orthbgraphy ought to be con-
sistent, and it appears to us that the best imitation on the
whole of the native sounds, will be secured by writing the
latter symbols in the last word of a combination, and the
former in the penultimate. The only case it is believed,

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PABT I. SECTION lU. SHANGHAI TONES. 29

where this method does not fully represent the true pronun-
ciation, is in such words as ^, ^, Hong, hi^ng, and others
whose initial is in mandarin k' and which are in the lower
first tone. There could be no objection to the use of g in
those cases, except the want of. uniformity among the mute
consonants; keeping the letter k^ it will be enough to inform
the reader, that there is a peculiar thickness of sound, and
a consonant difficult to write with any of our alphabetic
symbols.

36. Examples of the lower first tone, as the antepenulti-
mate in a group of three.

Accent.
^ '^ M «^'ong-hwun sing, evening star, - idt,
jj^ ^M zun-tsft ba, ancestral tablet, - - „
"U -jS ^ dzien-BZ* yon, enemy of a former

W\ „

]^ jf>S ^^ *^^ z^b, grinding hone, - „

in ^ il^ zu-le veh, title of Buddha, - - „

'JJr M B zicT^ liang-nyih, twcr days ago, - ant.
^ ^ -51 dong ^i-hiung, cousins on father's

Tones.

P-

p.p.

P-

B.p.

P-

k.p.

V-

P-J-

V' P-J-

p.

S.J.

P-

Ji. p.

>>

V-J' P' IS ^ 35 de veh-le, cannot carry it, - - ult,

Obs. The first word in this table, as in the preceding,
needs to be studiously kept low, even, and undeflected.

37. Examples of the lower first tone standing last in a
group of two or three.

Accent,
j§( ^ kiung zung, metropolis, - - - ult,
^ ^ kdng lau, merit, ------ ^,

J^ BM s^^S ^^^h Teioard, - - - -

j§ M ^sing dzung, enter the city,

^ ^ sing dzing, disposition, - - - - „

4b f1 P^^ mun, north gate, - - - - „

Jj^ 13 dzung deu, city wall, - - - - „

1^ f^ ng^ mun, mandarin's office, - - „
^ ^ lau ya, a title of respect, - - - ,,
^ 4l y^^S °^®^? ^^^P biifaloes, - -

Tones,

p.p.

s. p.
k.p.

p.p.

5. p.
k, p.

99
9}

99

Digitized by LjOOQIC

Tones.

Je.p.

3'V-

J- P- V-

k. k. p.

t. p. p,

J- P' V-

*.y. p.

30 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Accent.
:}^ JlJ zd bi. 6ar^ of trees^ ----- ult
^ ^ nioh nga, moon's horns, . - - ^^
7(C 5M i^oh deu, wood, ------ ,y

M >& A hull-sing niun, hlach-Tiearted man, ant.
^ ftfe JfJt ^^ ^i-bi, possess land, - - - ult,
^ ^ ^ sClTi hi-gi, regard as remarlahle, „
/fC 51 A nioh-deu niun, tvooden image, - ant.
S /fC li ^'ieu moh-deu, old luood, - - ult,
Obs. In the groups not marked p, p, and p, p, the last
word changes to the upper quick falling tone. In the re-
maining instances it preserves its even character. The way
is prepared for jecij)rocal changes between the upper and
lower series, by the initial consonants being different. The
alphabetical distinction prevents the confusion, that would
arise from this intermingling of sounds.

38. Examples of the lower first tone, as the penultimate
of three.

Tones. Accent.

p. p, s. ^ ^ ^ sing vong-tsz, a new Jiouse, - pen.

s. p, p. ^ A ^ tsu niun-ka, master of family, - ult.

^' P' P- M A ^ tsu niun k^, to he economical, - „

k, p. p. ^ i^ ^ yau dong-dicTi, he loants money, ant.

5. p. p. ^ A ^ hau niun-ka, an old man, - - ult.

8. p. p. J)p| ^ ilj ^ong-ding sa?i, island in the Great

Lahe, ------- ^^

y. p. h + 3E IS 5eh-?£;ong die?i, temple of the ten

Things. ^,

Obs. After the deep deflected tone preceding it in s, p, p,
the penultimate in these exanaples is usually raised to the
upper falling tone.

39. Lower second tone. This tone properly a low pro-
tracted tone rising at its close, contains in it a number of
words whose pronunciation is not fixed. These words^ some-
times counted in this tone, and at other times in the next in
order, are in other parts of China in the third tone. It will
be better to consider them under the heading to which they

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PART I. SECTION HI. SHANGHAI TONES. 31

belong in other dialects, and present here such examples as
are free from this uncertainty in tone.

Ex. ^ yeu, have; % ng^five; g li, Chinese mile.

40, Examples of the lower second tone in the penultimate
of two words.

Tones. Accent.

^ «-P- Bl Bt nga?i tsing ejres, tilt.

^ :g lau kitin, founder of Tauism^ - -

«• s. ijt ils^ldJig^z, coldivater, - - - •- - pen.
M, -f, nieu tsz, button^ -

s.\. S tt li sing, Tegison, ^ ult.

^ ^ma, ts'ii, 7nea7is of buTjing^ - -

^- J' :% M m!e?i t'eh, /ort^we, - . » -

«. P- M M ling deu, nechhandy . - - .
;^ A nti niun, zoornan, - - - *

«• s. :3^ j^ 2/iiug 2/07J, very Zo/igr time, - -

«• ^. §1 ^ 2/un 2/eu^, ^o te7npt, )- - - .

^ |§ ling lu, lead the zvay, - - -

«v/- W Is 1^ liah, ro5,

Obs. i. The tone under illustration, keeps its natural cha*
racter throughout. No initial letters occur but 1, m, no-, n, r
and the vowels. Words beginning with mutes and sibilants
that were originally in this tone, are in course of transition to
the lower third tone. V from w in mandarin, remains in the
second tone.

Obs. ii. The low deflected tone in the penultimate of s, p,
and 5, s. so affects the last words, that they are heard in the
quick falling tone.

Obs. iii. This -tone is difficult to describe as distinct from
ihe preceding, from the fact that both tend upwards; the
former deviates slightly, after beginning even; the latter be-
gins low and ascends through its whole time. The first is in
its general character even, but when compared with the pure
monotone in the Amoy dialect, to which it is most nearly
allied, there is a difference perceptible that needs to be speci-
fied. It is heard we believe with this peculiarity when pro-
nounced alone, and' when standing last in a binary combina-

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9)

;?

99
99

;»

99

99
9y

1

32 THE SHAKOHAI DULBCT.

tion, if it does not then change to the upper first tone. When
first in order, it is even. It was before observed, that the
first upper tone, when last in order, changes to the first lower.
In the sound then heard, when enunciated with the true na-
tive drawl, the same may be noticed.

Obs. iv. There is nothing even in the secohd tone when
alone, except when enunciated in a high key. When last in
order it often rises to the upper second tone, and is then
heard even^

For ready comparison of the sounds, a few examples of
words in the lower tones are her§ appended : —

S> M> ^> liang, in the tones p. 8. k.

CE, 1*, ^. ^U

A, IS, M. niun, (r. zun), „

iffi, W, i&, yen, „

m^ II, M, di,
fit, P, #, zae,
The last two words here marked as in the second tone will
be shewn immediately to be so for this district.

41. Examples of the same tone as the antepenultimate in
a group of three.

Tones. Accent.

«• P* J* ?& 55 ^ l^^g t'lCTi-suh, cold weather, - - ult.
s. s. s, iPP 81 ^ nUtu. kw^Tiy ear cavity, - - - „
s.k.p. ^-jkM 1^^ *'^ ^^y ^9^^ dame, - . . „
s. k. p. S H 235 ^^ tsing-16, to buy, . . • . „
8. h. s. HC ^ 35 va-ni tsz, capacity for an art or

"business, -----i---- pen,
'5. ^. p. '^ V 1^ ling-zz "k^^n, foreign consul, - ult.

42. Examples of this tone as the last in a group of two or
three words.

Tones. Accent.

P- «• \% ^ k'icTi ml, grind rice,^ - - - - iil**

s. s. >J> 11 siau w, small rain, ..--.- »,

. k, <s. ^ ^ k'ong long, to hide, ,?

j. 5. ^0 *^h nieu, an iron hoot, - - - „

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PAUT I. 8B0TI0N HI. SHANGHAI TONBS, 33

Tones. Accent^

J- ^- B# HR hah ngaw, hUnd^ . - - . . ult.

P-^ ^* IS M. dzing lij reasonable y reason j - - ,,

*• ^' HA ^^ ^^> beautiful womany -• - . „

Ar. &, S! it dzing If, cJo everything properly ^ - „

> ^- ^."^ loh w, i^ rams, .---•- „

^ ?^ dz^h Idng, catch coldj » - - - ,,

jp, p. «. i^ Uc ^ tsun-tsCl ml, Indian corn, - - ,^

k. 8. 5, :S ^ tS ^s^® ^''^ ^^^> ^^^y miserable^ - „

^. i. s. W tE 3 y^^ 'dau-li, virtuous, - . - ant.

J.y. s. ^ J^ II veh leh-li, wo^ a^ /iorne, • - . „

^•/ *• IS ^ S ^^^ veh-li, mZZ ;io^ Zis^ew, . . „

Obs. In fif S and Si 1K> where a difference of aocent might have
Ibeen expected, the distinction is kept in the native pronnnciaticm, entirely by
means of the tones. In many of these cases, the last word rises and becomes
-even, i. e. passes into the upper second tone. Thus, QR nga« and ^ li,
become high and even.

43. Examples of the same tone, as the penultimate La a
group of three.

Tones. Accent,

p. 5. p. IS JS ;5s tsong-m6n tsz, having packed full ^ ant.
k. 5. k. ^ i^ {$ k'oTiUng p'li, despise others, . pen,
J9. 5. s. 1^ 3 15 dzing-li ticTi, be more- reasonable, ant.
k, s, s. if 3[ M nian-ng li, twenty-Jive Chinese miles. „
j\ s. Jc. ^ BR M ^^h ngan-li, to weep, ... ult.
s. s. k. £ M K- ng-li Id ^ Jive Chinese miles^ . „

44. Before proceeding to those words whose tone is unde-
cided, it may be first observed, that in the Tonic Diction-
aries,*^ there is a large class of characters ranged under the
second tone, not found there, either in the dialects of the
Southern provinces, or in the Northern mandarin as registered
by Pr6mare. These words have for their initials, only the
sibilant and mute consonants z, dz, zh, b, d, g, witli the
vowels, and v from f. In the modern pronunciation of Hang-
cheu and Su-cheu,' they ar« also found as in other parts of the
empire in 'the third tone. It follows that they must have

* The names of some of the most commonly used are ||f ^ ^ J5^,

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84 THE 6HAKGHAI DIALECT.

made the transition, since the Dictionary system was com-
pleted. The earliest works containing it, quoted in K'ang-hi,
are said in the preface to have been MTitten in the Liang and
T'dng dynasties,* and tnust consequently be regarded as the
tradition of at least a thousand years. While this change has
taken place in the sound of a large class of very common
words, through the greater part of China, it is curious to no-
tice, that the older pronuneiation still lingers in the colloquial
practice of*one part at least of central China.

Even if the inventors of the sjUabic spelling confined
themselves in the first instance to the usage of the Kidng
provinces, whik north anci south of them a different pronun-
ciation prevailed, still this change has taken place in the large
cities of Cheh-kiang and Ki^ng-nto, which are now one with
their neighbours. In our own dialect it has not yet been
completed. After a sufficient time perhaps, this anomaly will
have its term, and the boundaries of the tones be "as sharply
defined, as according to the laws of Chinese pronunciation
they ought to be. There are moreover other illustrations
that may be drawn from the Dictionaries, of secular changes
(to adopt the phraseology employed in sciences of higher
mark) occurring in the tones of China.

45. Lower third tone. The words that were primarily
in this tone, are always heard with the quick rising pronun-
ciation that properly belongs to it. It is like *^the tone
given to some words, when spoken ironically, or to the word
* indeed!' when used as an exclamation." (Medhurst's flok-
kien Dictionary.)

The words referred to in the last article, are placed here
rather than in the second tone, because the other dialects are
unanimous in doing so. In fact, however, they are in Shang-
hai usage more in the last tone than in this. The following
words for example, when pronounced alone, have the long
sound.

J^ fti- "From the Shwoh-wun downward, the best Dictionaries, were
Yuh-p'ien in the Liang, and Kwang Yiin in the T'ang dynasties," etc. Liang
A.D. 502 to 660, T'ang 617 to 917.

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PART I. SBCTI019 UI. fflAKGHAI TONBS. 35

^ 'hen, ± 'zang, fft '^ong, ^ 'voUg, ^ 'zu, ^ 'pu,
iB'^fl, ^'zz, ^7i, :3C'vu, pdzui, I^Viw^T^,
# 'Ayung, Iff 'zz, 5i '^au, jf 'vu, -^ 'zau, || 'po,
% 'iwe, J^ 'dzu, ^ '^ong, ^^ Va7^, ft 'dz6ng,f Vud,
5£ 'iiun, ^ 'ztfTi, ^ 'dz^ng, :j£ 'dze.

'*:^* In^the department of ^ ® Ka-hiung, occupying the space between
those of Hang-cheu and Sung-kiang, these words are never in the third tone.

Any of these words that occasionally become verbs in the books, being
commonly in other parts of speech, are in that case always marked as belong-
ing to the third tone in good editions of native works. E. e. _c IF w w ^
when they become verb's, change from the second to the third tone and are so
marked. All the authorities are uniform in these matters ; and the Diction-
aries specifv the tones by name, assigning the primary sense to the second
tone, and the secondary sense, in all these cases a verb, to the third tone.

46. -Th^se words though when standing isolated, they
keep the old dictionary tone, are liable to such frequent
changes in combination, that teachers who hare not studied
the subject, are at a loss to affix their true tone. In the fol-
lowing examples, these variations will be indicated as .they
occur, by the apostrophe on the left, and inverted comma on
the right, for the second and third tones respectively.

Tones. Accent.

Jc, k. ^ ^ 'zu ziV, sit dowUy ^ nit.

B. A, If ^ ts'ing 'zu, please sit dotvriy pen.

A- p. Jl IS 'zong deu, above, ult.

p, k, M J^ ioong zang', emperor, „

p. i. it ^ h'iung di*, younger brother, pen.

k, p. ^51 'ti h'iung, brothers, - ult.^

k, k, ^ 3tE i^i dau^ taste, _ „

k. p, jiE S 't^^ ^^> Revenue Commissioner, „

i-.i>. Ji^J^au' ya, ^ M --- ,,

k.h, p jg ze' ku, 5m, 1 pen.

k. Jc. ^ IP ^ing 'dzue, to condemn,

k.k. :^ f@ zz' ku, it is so,

j\ k. ^ ^ veh 'zz, it is not so, .^^ ult.

y. k. ^ ^ loeh 'dong, living and moving,

Jc. p. S6 zS" '^oi^g sun, move one's-self,

s. ^•. ^ j^ kwo 'vu, a widotv, pen.

p* >^*. ^ ^ fti vu', husband andjvife,] ult.

f9

yy

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36 THE SHAHOHAl DUUCOT.

Tones, Accent.

p. k iS ^ ^^^ '7^n, be virtuous j pen,

^. k, ^ ^ 'zeT^ pan, reward of virtue, ult.

p. p. k. ^. 0^ ^ jil ijl ming tsz ku 'van, wilfully

transgress, „

Jc, j, jg^ f^ van* fah, hi^eaJc the law, ^ „

Ic.j. h. ^ ^ ^ zz^ veil zz, is it so or not? - — „

ic,J. k, 3& ^ ^ piog veil 'zz, certainly not, ant,

^» j- tS M 'zau oh, huild a house, -- ult.

h. p. s, 3^ ^ ^ zau' vsren i^^, finished building, . pen.
p. k p. J&. ^ Tfr SM -t kd 'zz deu long, in the streets, ult.

k, p. iff 55 zz' deu, the street, — „

k, s. k, fl P^ fj '^ong lau dong', moving, „

K p, s, 5 ^ ^ dzong' 16 si, very heavy, „

k, /Er, S S '^'^ Mzong, value highly/, „

Obs. It will be seen that among these examples, there are nearly As many
of the quick or third tone, as of the longer one. Taking the usage all in all,
the balance in cases of grouping is however, in favour of the quicker form.
When alone the original tone is used almost exclusively. In reading there is
about the same amount of variation as in colloquial usage. The quicker tone
usually, but not exclusively, prefers to stand last, leaving the penultimate of
& combination to the longer tone.

47. In regard to the words that have always been in the
lower third tone, there is as much regularity of pronunciation
as in any other tone.

Ex. ^ ping, disease; fj too, loords, to^speah; ];fz ^^j greai.

The following are examples where this tone occurs in the
penultimate of a group of two.

Tones. Accent.

k. p. M Mi zun f6ng,/atV wi7id, ult.

k. s. ?S, "S ^^^^^ ^^z, ink stone, pen,

^*. ki ^ '^ ^iiig tong, ^o/iT, ult.

k j • ^h ^ nga koh, foreign state, „

]g JU ma t'eh to sell o^, ----- - pen.

X-, p. ^g H^ long deu, laaves, ------ ult.

k k. M 1^ mien man, countenance, - - - - ^,

k k M ^ ^ia ziS., / thank you,- ----- ^^

^'•i' J& # ^i^^^ ^^^y chant Buddhist classics, - „

48. Examples of this tone in]tlie^antepenultimate of three*

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PABT I. SECTION III. SHANGHAI TONDS, 37

Tones. Accent,

A, p. p, Mii& M ^S^^S sing-dz^ng, hard hearty - ult.

tj. p. ^ g ^ng^-kohnmn^ foreigner, - - - ant.

*• J- J- S^ ffi Ifi zing' t*seh t*seh, quiet and empty ^ „

^- ?• J- 8! in H ngang zfli t'ih, AarcZ as iron, - - ult.

k p. B. ^ J6 -^ ^fi niang-tsz, t(7i/e, ----- pen.

^'J* J- IS li M vauTi lih-sih, rice crumbs , - - ant.

Obs, In the fourth example "^ being an enclitic, throws back the accent
on the penultimate. In the last, the accent is on the first word for a similar
reason.

49. Examples of the lower third tone standing last in a
group of two or three.

Tones. Accent,

p. ^. ^ -t k^ long, in the streets, - - - - pen.

^ 1^ tu zi^, many thanks,- - - - - ult.

j^ 1^ sau Ym^ cook rice, ----- ,,

8. k. p|p{ ^ h'iang li^ng, distinct in sound, - - ^,

k. *. M:h *i°g ^^} ^'^^ greatest,- - - - - ^^

•^ iSf sing ming, ?7/e, ------ ^,

j, Jfe. S ^ k'o?i bing, cwre diseases,-- - - - ,,

p. /[;. H ;S koh du, a kingdom, ----- ,^

Jg ^ dzung 'ng^, outside the city wall, - „

8.K ffi ® dzCie bien, a5 you please, - - - „

^. k. |g» ]g zun (or niun) ne, patient, - - - „

"^ ^w6 w^f speak ill of, - - - - - „

^ J^ ming ling, a command, - - - - ^^
y. k. M ^ ^^^^ liang, moonlight, - - - .
s, s. jfe. ^ ■?: ^ ku tsz z\\, fruit-bearing tree,

k. p, i. 5^ ^ IS song k^ng va7^, grire away food,- pen.
J. s. *• JS ^i ^ ngok (R.nidk) tsz bing, /et;er a7id

ague, — — — — — — — — — — ult.

In the first example, long is always in the third tone. With •(§ Jl ka long
or [1| Jl san long, compare the English conviety wisdom, darkness. If the last
words however, were not a mere enclitic, the comparison of pronunciation
would fail, the accent being on the ultimate.

50. Examples of the same tone in the penultimate of a
group of three.

97

99

»

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38 TflS ffHAVGHAl DXAUDOT.

Tones. Accent,

"p. k. 8. &^ 9i t'ii-zz ngan, partideSy - - - ant.

"p.k k, ^ 3K fll tn zi4 n6ngy many thanhs to yoUj ,,

j. ^. p. sk ^ j21 tseh-ding tsz, obstiTUXte^ - - - ^^

P'^*P' M ^ ® dzung nga-deu, outside the city," nit.

«. ^. k. M ^ is li^ng-y^ng ku, different^- - - pen.

K k,k. ^ ^ M 'nian-niari k'cm, read a little aloudj ant.

J. kk. ^ ^ P^ veh-ng6 s^, tw) matter, - - - pen.

p. i.p. [^ ^ A Tn-yung niun, a useless man,-- - „

Obs. When an enclitic stands last, as in the 3rd, 6th, and 7th examples,
the lower third tone preceding it takes the accent.

51. Lower fourth tone. While this may be described as
the lower short rising tone, and represented as short in quan^
tity, it should be observed, that two long vowels, and several
diphthongs are also admitted to it. The same is true of the
short tone in the upper scale. These vowels and diphthongs
are d, 6, (vide art. 6,), and iak, iah, iok, ioh, ink, w^k, wah,
weh, wok.

Ex. ^ zuk, thief; ^ ^h, to press; |g iioh, to dig.

52. Examples of this tone when standing last of two
words.

Tones. Accent^

?•/• M J^ *8^ i^eh, cover over, ----- ult,

^J' i & *'u b^h, local dialect, - - - -

k. y. ^ ^ j[ de dih, oppose enemies, - - - -

i'J* ft ^ ^^^ (S) 2^^^? become aware of, - - pen.

ttj ';fy t'seh lih (link), exert strength, - - „

P'J' ^ 6 ming bdh, clear, to understand,-- - ult.

g; ^ dzong deh, tautology, - - - - ,^

^•y* j^ ^ now nyih, t(;arm,- ----- „

^'J' ^ y'k^^ ^^h, ^ree5, ------ „

//• i II ^6h (g) yah, pozsow, - - - - - pen.

Obs, The long tones preserve their character before the short tone with
great accuracy.

53. Examples of this tone in|the penultimate of two words.
Tones. Accent.
J' V' PS ^ ^^^ sang, strange, unknown, ult.

}9
99

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PART I. SECTION HI. SHANGHAI TONES. 39

Tones. Accent.

i'JP- ^ ^Mksii, a little, ult.

j< s, 5^ He loksz, ebb tide^ „

/ k. ^ ^ peh. siang, amusement , do nothing ^^ „

J' j» JSS ^ Aah tsah, narrow-minded, :- „

^ JK lok t'eh, let fall, pen.

/jP* ^IJ A.jpit niun, aTio^Aer maw, ult,

/ '^* R ^ seh z6, ^TO?y, „

i-/ @ %1k ^^t (g) loh, ^JZe of contents, ,,

Obs. The terminating consonants of the fourth tone, in some dialects are
three, k, t, p, corresponding to the final ng, n, m, of words in the other tones,
Only the first of these is audible in Shanghai pronunciation. It occurs after
a, 6, o, u. It is heard k before consonants of the upper series, particularly
s, t ; and g before those of the lower series, particularly z, d. Both will be
found exemplified in these two tables.

54. Examples of combinations of three.

Tones, Accent.

/ p. s. ^ ^ ^p, Aok-sdng tsz, scJiolar, pen.

y. j. ^. ^ — ' £ veh ih-ding, not necessarily, ant.

3. kp, i^ T 35 loh*au-le, fall down, „ -

/ ^'J' 6 IS JK pah (g) i^o-t'eh, speak to 710 jmr-

pose, pen.

p^ J. s. ia ^ jg tm veh-k'i, cannot lift, ant.

P'J-J* W^ ^ M dzing-veh-dzah, connotjind, ult.

Obs: The first of these may be compared to a trissyllable with an accent
on the penultimate, as " convicted," i. e. if ^ sang be pronounced high.
The syllables adjacent to the accent in English are so contracted in time as
to sound more like words in short tones or enclitics, than in long tones.
Should ^ fall to the lower first tone as it often does, the similarity would
not hold.

55, Examples of larger groups in the lower tones,
IS :^ ]fiC :& ^^n-uQn 'nii-'nu, men and woman,

W W & 6 ming-ming Mh-bdh, perfectly clear,

5^ ills /E ling-Ill don* p'ih, silks and satins^

S 19 M M fong diau 'u zunS wind and rain favourable,

B J M ^ zeh, 2/oh, sing, dzun, sun, moon, and stars,

tLMM^^^^'^ ni* 'li tsz* ^ing', five cardinal virtues.

5c J4 H '^ t'le^- di' va?i*-veh, heaven, earth and all things,

# 11 W ^ ife sa-'li 2/eu-?(;ong.kiun, there is gold in booh.

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40 THE SHANGHAI DULEOT.

Sic It & IS ba-dz^ng^dh-w76*, household words.

•^ Bl :^ -" 81 ih-'ngaw-du ih-'ngan, increase little hy little.

IK 3? Sc ^ nieu-i meu-zuh, seek food and clothing.

56, General remarks on the lower tones,

I. The initial consonant is a test for any word being in
the upper or lower series. Thus, all the broad mutes and
sibilants, the weak aspirate, with the liquids and nasals are
in the lower tones. The other consonants with the strong
aspirate are in the upper series. The following in the higher
tones are exceptions.

Ex, Sg; @, if, m^ ^, n I*, don, 'don, donS d^S deh,

deu*, deTi. ^, p^^, Id, loh. Yet ^ is heard te^ in W deu,

'adversary. This is caused by the accent falling on ^ deu.

This famishes the pnnciple of the orthography adopted in the present
work. The initial letter being an index to the tone, it is needless to employ
distinct tonal marks for the upper and lower series. In the same way, the
Fan t'sieh or native syllabic spelling marks the series by the first word, and
the particular tone by the sound. Thus y^ fu is spelt with jf ^ fang du.
The initial F of the first word combined with the U final of the second, gives
the sound |fu in the first tone. We add an example or two from K'ang-
hi:—

jE is spelt with ^ 3& chang i?ing', giving ching*.

^ „ „ fi" ffil ^ing choh, „ /«6h.

The first word tells us, whether the sound required is high or low, and the
. second to which of the four tones it belongs. The pronunciation of the words
borrowed for this purpose is supposed known.

II. The orthography is in many instances not fixed.
Words sometimes heard g, d, b, are at other times heard
A, ty p. The sounds 'g, d, b, occur after a word in combina-
tion; while ^, tjPy occur when no word precedes. To indi-
cate that they are always low in pitch, they are printed in
italics. V, z, come partially under the same rule. The rest
dz, dzz, are scarcely heard in the thin forno^ at all, and are
therefore spelt with d in this work. Another peculiarity is
that z and dz are interchangeable. Z is more common iu
conversation; dz in reading.

III. There are many words having sibilants or mutes, or
the weak aspirate for their initial consonants, of which the
tone is uncertain, being sometimes in the second, and at

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PART I. SECTION Ul. RELATION OP TONES TO ACCENTS. 41

other times in the third. The liquids and vowels have not
this peculiarity, and it only belongs to words that were ori-
ginally in the second tone,

IV. The first tone, when la^t in a binary combination,
rises to the upper first, except when preceded by the first
tone, upper or lower. The initial consonant remains broad
as in other cases.

V. The other tones also frequently rise to the upper series
when standing last, each to its corresponding tone, and the
initial consonant is unaffected.

VI. The laws of accent are the same as in the upper
tones. The last word of a combination being usually ac-
coHted, affords the best opportunity for the discrimination of
the tones.

57. Relation of Tones to Music. It is only when they are
even, thajb a musical notation can fully and correctly represent
ihe tones. For deflection, so essential to the latter, is not al-
lowed in music, being destructive of harmony. The short and
quick tones may however be described as staccato notes, and
ithe violin may be made in passing from one ^ote to another,
lo produce a continuous sound, which has been adduced in
^' The Chinese as they are," to illustrate the deflections. In
regard to time, [so minutely subdivided in music, there do
not appear to be more than two classes of tones, the quick
and the slow. Kircher supposed that the five tones were the
Jfirst five notes in an octave do, re, mi, fa, sol; but in reality,
differences of elevation are usually not more than two for
one dialect. The interval between the two series varies, it
being greater for example, in some parts of the north of
China, than in Ki^ng-n^n, where it is about half an octave.

58. Relation of Tones to Accents in other languages. So
far as accent only means the distinction of loud and soft,
there seems no analogy. For the Chinese tones may be pro-
nounced as gently or sonorously as the speaker pleases, and
loudness in this language also constitutes accent as distinct
from tone. In the common accents of English conversation
however, there is usually a difference in deflection, or as it is
called by some writers, modulation. There is one tone (1)

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42 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

for assertion and determination, and another (2) for asking
questions; and these differ not in time, or in loudness, but in
the fact that they are deflected downwards and upwards re-
spectively. Again, the tone of interrogation (2) is commonly
quick, while that of sarcasm (3) is often slow. Those who
read aloud, too often confine themselves almost exclusively to
the monotone, a fourth variation (4). Now it is these very
distinctions of deflection and time that form the essence of
the Chinese tones, and they are in daily use in our own lan-
guage, as aids in expressing the feelings, as marks of emphasis,
and as a means of relieving the voice by interchange. All
that a foreigner has to do then in imitating the Chinese tones
is to apply forms of utterance, to which he is already accus-
tomed, to those words in which the Chinese employ them, and
to treat the tone thus individualized, whichever it may be,
as a part of the word, to be learned contemporaneously with
the vowels and consonants. With regard to the doubly de-
flected tones, and those that are less familiar to ris, the an-
cient Greeks would have had an advantage we do not possess.
Their circumflex was made up of two tones, the acute and
grave combined. (Buttman Gr. Gram. Sect. 9.) Every syllable
had a tone, and the tones were placed on either long or short
vowels. There seem also to have been dialectic and secular
varieties. These four facts are all suggestive of a similarity
in their enunciation to that of China. Mr. Lay in the work
alluded to above, has pointed out to. what tones the Greek
accents appeared to him to correspond. But our data are so
scanty on the subject of classical pronunciation, that nothing •
certain can be said, when we attempt to detail their individual
differences.

59, Examples are here annexed of words, which differing
•slightly, as in a tone or an aspirate, may be mistaken for each
other if mispronounced.

f^ ^ kiung* Hsz, a mirror^

-^ ^ 'kiung tsz*, beautiful scenery^

\% II ^ojig^ deu, waves.

ifgi 51 'long deu, a hammer.

Ifc m 't'sz diS here.

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PABT I. SECTION IV. NATIVE INITIALS AND PJNALS. 43

^ SI t'sz* diS regularity,

JH fjc tsing' kiau*j enter a religious secty

IS ffc 't'sing kiau*, please inform wie,

% g| tV deu, /icre.

^tj 51 t'i' deu, shaven

;H ^ tsfte* tti, very many.

^ 4; tsiie* du% t;ery grreaf,

m /V ^i* pah, ^Ae eighth.

|§ ^ ^i bah,^o fia-ire.

:^ i^ ^fi* siS young son.

H 3E ^^ 'si% i(;isA ^0 rfzV,

1^ jj veh t'6ng, without reason or proof,

^ <||| veh 'tong, not to understand.

^ 1^ veh dong, not the same.

^ ^ veh 'dong, not moving^

Note. For some words of constant occurrence, the follMring contractions
will in future be used. c. or s. c. Shanghai, colloquial form. u. Northern
mandarin pronunciation, r. or s, b. Shanghai reading sound.

Section 4. Alphabetical form of the Shdnghdi sounds
i. Initials.

60. In grammatical works on other langnages, more or less
is said on orthography, or orthoepy accordiifg as the alphabe-
tical symbols are controlled by more or fewer laws. The Chi-
nese sounds are few, and regulated by laws which are easily
laid down. A section therefore may properly be devoted to
the romanized form of the sounds.

From the time that the Buddhist priests introduced the
Sanscrit system, and the initials and finals, the Chinese have
had an imperfect method of spelling words. The division of
each sound into two parts, represented by two characters, the
initial ^ 'mfl, and the final ^ ytin*, constitutes the method^

The ^ ^ zz* to6*j a Dictionary of the Ming dynasty, says ]^ ^ & 2fc

«5 «&, IB ^ JW" «, «i 4U ^ m ?!l ;S H + 5^ # , :^ « 2p

JK ffl SK> y^n* yah, zz* sun* yah 'sz, rh suh zun kong, ki 'i 'tung ytin*, lib
w^a&naeh loh 'mu', ftm«^i?ing tsuh sz' sung. **The doctrine of arranginsf
Moundt hy their rhymes began with Shin-yohj and the Buddhist priests Shin-k'ong eon-
iinued it^ fwnning the rhymes into classes^ and the initials into thirty six dvMons^ and
placing them aU under the four tones."

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44

THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

61. From the sixth century of our era, the system whose
origin is thus recorded, has been preserved in the Dictionaries
successively made, with'apparently few variations. The thirty
six initials referred to are contained in the following table: —

Native table of Initials.

k k' g ng

M, . m u m

kien k'i giiin ngi

t t' d n
twan t'eii ding' ni

ch ch' j ni

^' m m u

cli ch'eh jing niang

p p' b m

?^ If 3fe m

pang p'ang bmg mmg

f f V w
fi f u vong vi

ts ts' dz 8 z
tsing ts'ing dzong sin zie

tsh t'sh dj sh zh

m ^ ^ m m

tshau t'shuen jwang shin zhen

J h y h

B m % u

ying hiaii yu ^iah

1 rh

^

lai jih

62. From the table it will be seen, that the division into
an upper and lower series of initial consonants, the one em-
bracing thin and clear sounds, with strong aspirates, the
other including the broader consonants with the liquids and
nasals, meets us not only in the study of the tones of a diqi-
lect as shewn in the former section, but in the accredited
Dictionaries of the general language. This may be readily
accounted for from the Ki^ng provinces having been the chief
seat of literature and political power, when the sounds of the
language were first represented by double characters. Since
the growth of the modern pronunciation there has been no
attempt in any imperial work to form a new system of spell-
ing.* The difference of the old system and the new will be
understood if it be mentioned that ^1^ ii, fish, is spelt ngti,'
and that ^[%, ^, wdi', yoh, are also in the column headed
NG. More details on this subject will be found in the ap-
pendix. In the 3£ 15^ % W ^ small portable Dictionary on

* In K'ang-hi's Dictionary many words in the lower firs t tone, formerly
in the g, d, b, columns, have been transferred to the aspirate column, to be
in conformity with northern pronunciation. Words in the short tone having
k, t, p, as finals in the old system, have also been classed as terminating in
vowels, for the same reason. These changes however are only found in Kang-
hi's second table, and the older classification, denoted by a circle round the
examples placed where they formerly stood, is retained with the new.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

PART I. BECTION JV. THE SHANGHAI INITIALS. 45

the alphabetic plan, and containing about 10,000 characters,
the modern mandarin is followed in the initials and finals.

63. In eight of the nine divisions above, the second initial
is the strong aspirate either alone or following, the letters k,
t, ch, p, f, ts and tsh. Of these tho palatal ch, and sibilant
tsh, are not needed in Shanghai pronunciation. Ts takes
their place. In double initials the aspirate is between t
and s, or t and sh.

(ch) ^ J^ M. ch tau^ s. tsz dau*, to Jcnoto,

(tsh) tt{ 3jS M ch'uh l^i s. ts'eh le, come out,

F' is the same as f. In other instances the aspirate is always preserved,

?fe 31 ?fe tti t'sz tsing* t'sz t*seh, blow in and out.

S Ifc JK S k'oTi* h'ih h'i* 'vd, have you seen the play ?

H P' k'6 'k'eu, begin speaking.

In ©ther cases, all these letters with and without aspirates, are the same
with mandarin.

64. The third initial of the same eight divisions is want-
ing for Sh4nghdi, only in the case of those headed ch and tsh.
Their place is supplied by z. ^ ^ y^^S J^ongS visible form,
Sh and 2h in the seventh, are replaced by s and z.

— H ^ M, ih chih 'sheu s. ih tsah 'sen, one hand.
^ ^ H« sh wuh s. zz veh, things in season^
J^ <^ H. shen^ tsz s. ^^n^ tsz, fan.
^ M. shea ling s, 'zeu 'ling, receive.

65. The h of mandarin is never heard before w or y in the
lower tones : —

H ^ A\ ftS. 8^^ 2^ung loh p'ah, three mental^ and sixphy-

* sical principles of human life.

^^ %JSk^^ yung vu zidng', invisible,

M ^ y^'^^ vun^, what belongs to a district city^

^ &M A ^iau* fah pih niun, imitate others.

In other examples among the lower tones, a slight aspirate is retained for
the strong hissing sound of mandarin.

JK ^ IR SS hong k^k Hsz deu, red ruled paper.
^ § /ia^i sfi, light reading y |^ ^ h^ 'tsz, shoes.
This slight aspirate is lost in a word standing last in a conbination.

^ fg JIf fx 'nd nung sieu ang? hotv shaU I groto virtuous?
^ If: H ^ *ki hau^ k'weh ah.? how wide ?

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46 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

The English aspirate is between the two aspirates here distinguished, and
is the same as that of Fuh-kien. We have no parallel in our pronunciation^
to that hissing guttural sound, which in the mandarin provinces, belongs to
all the five tones, and in Kiang-nan to the upper series. Hence Morrison
speaks of it as sh. Nor can the weak aspirate of the Kiang-nan lower series,
disappearing as it does so frequently, be regarded as an equivalent to the
English H.

66. With regard to the thick mutes and sibilants (g, d, b^
V, z,) in the lower tones, it may be remarked generally, that
foreigners in learning colloquial phrases, usually acquire the
habit of pronouncing these consonants thin, when first in a
combination, and broad, when some word^recedes. This is
so frequently true, that no further proof is needed of the pro-
nunciation being variable.

H ^ W kCi*, this. 2Jc H t'sz^ di', good order^

H ^ ^I bah, rescue. ^ ^ i?ah 'ts'au^ to weed,

fl ^ ^ P^^ ^^^ ^^\ indispensable,
^ Mit veh *ba Id, mere than that.
9t I^ >J> S ^^' dong 'siau f, differing but little.
^ ife S"f v^^ ^^* 'hsLUf not good.
For t and^, there is no difficulty in spelling as is here done, but k, 8,f, are
not so easily disposed of. The initial A: or g is enunciated thickly before the
vowels i and ii, though according to the system of the Dictionaries, the initial
is the same in all cases. Some foreign students regard it as an aspirated con-
sonant. Others write it dj or d. This anomaly of pronunciation, so difficult
to express, does not occur before w, a and 4. Limited thus to i and ii, it is
thought preferable pot to depart from the analogy, by inventing a new symbol
for the few words in use that contain this unmanageable consonant.

}t M *'s^^ g^' ^^^ ^-P ^^^^- ® ^^ '^'^^^ ^^^'' mountain chair.
^ 4!g kw6 hw6, sunflower. ^ ^ Icien kau% pray.

67. The lower f and s, are often heard v, z, even without
a word preceding. Thus the actual pronunciation cannot be
fairly represented by the law that answers for the other let-
ters, and the only resource is to follow the natives in each
case. This v, as well as that from w (m.) are pronounced w
on the eastern side of the Hw^ng-p'u*

^ ^/oh zz*, to serve.

^ H lau zeh, honesty.

ij} {^ «&' zid^, I thank you.

IS ^ BR 56h zz* 'nga?t, colloquial expressions.

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PABT I. SEGTION IV. INITIAL LETTERS. 47

^ ^ zong* siH, the Historical Classic.
IS P£ ]^ va^i' k'iuh ma^i', have you dined ?
35 2r sia p'a', depraved customs.
15 5C v^^ tseu% ^0 swear.

68. The initials z and dz correspond, though somewhat
irregularly, to the tabular initials z, zh, and j, dz, dj.

:^ *f ft zCl' au tsz, branches of trees.
^ ^ zak sz', if.
^ ^ p'au' dzo, make tea^
Up T 2JJ dze?i *au le, deliver down.
|g li ^ dzii^ 'long le, collect.
The d is often dropped, both in reading and in the conver-
sational form,

^ # S ^ veh w6^ sia zz^ cannot tvrite (ii, tsz*),
^ ^ IS 'P^ du' zm,'"^^ ferry-boat (M, ch'uen).
^ X yang* z^nj keep silhwormSy (m. t'sdn).
The d is in some words retained in reading, when dropped
in the colloquial form.

It M J^ 1^ za (r, dze) long 'hu pau^, wolves and tigers.
^ ^ ^au za (c.) rice straw.
^ P5 dze (b.) mun, wooden gate.
5^ ^ 'zau (r. dzau) Yf^n^ finish building.

69. Words beginning with a vowel, belong to the thirty-
first or thirty- third initials (y, y,) according as they are high
or low in tone. In giving the romanized form, a more ex-
tended subdivision of the vowels must of necessity be adopted.
In the present work, the initial vowel is italicized, when its
word belongs to the lower series.

^ 2jS 5E 'y^^ 1^ 'si J very far off.
% ^ j'on 'wong^ falsely accuse.

Those words in the dialect that begin with n, m, v, while in northern man- ,

darin they have only a vowel as their initial, are placed in the Dictionary sys
tern under those consonants, and they are all in the lower tones.

Jj^ ^ 'niow 'zz, well then it is —

^ III ^ i^JC t'sie?i Ban vaw^ 'ss, a long distance.

— * ;g H ih pah ma»*, a million.

'^ IS The Dictionary pronunciation is ^ Jl| -{||| zhuen.

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^ ' TAB SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Words in the upper series beginning with a vowel, which in northern man-
darin take the sound n^ before them, never have it in the Shanghai dialect,
nor in the Dictionary system. E. g.* Sg ngai', g| ngoh,t are pronunced 6'
and oh.

Sfe ^ ^Bl I& y ^' i ^/^ng* meh zz*, love that thing.
In the lower tones the initial ng is always preserved.
^ ?l R§ veh ng6^ sd^ no matter.
~ BR ^ R ill 'ngan veh ng^ng^, not in the least hard.
P$ 3^ "Iff ® 'ngaa ngfi t'sih 't'sz, grind teeth xoith rage.
fg ^ U 'ngu veh ngu% I am not hungry.

70. The remaining initials are ng, n, ni, m, v, 1, and j.
They belong with few exceptions to the lower tones.

Ng, I. Many words classed in the Dictionaries under this
initial are pronounced differently in this dialect. Thus ^ yau,
^ fen, have no initial consonant, ^ nl, ^ 'nii, ^ ni*, be-
long to the tooth nasal (n). ^% ^ are read ii, u, but spoken
ng. Ng precedes a, e, o, o, u, but not i, ii.

II. Other words as ^ nioh, ^ nieu, ^ ni5n, belong more
properly to the class headed ni, or the Spanish circumflexed
n. The Su-cheu dialect agrees better with the Dictionaries
in this class of words, than that of Shdngh^i.

III. All the words in Morrison with the initial G belong
to this class, except such ais are in the upper tones. Such
words as he writes aou, ae, yae, follow the same rule.

71. N, NI. These though distinguished in some alpha-
bets as in Sanscrit and Spanish, may be for our purpose more
usefully regarded as identical, the i being considered to be-
long to the final. Accordingly such words as ^ 'nu ^ijt 'n6,
^ nieu, though placed under the palatal nasal ni in the na-
tive system, will be regarded as belonging to the tooth nasal
N, and the remainder of the sound reckoned as the final.
Even in the tables, these two consonants are in intentional

* ^ M. ngan, s. 6«, >@, ngun, s. un, !^ ngai, s. 6, B|f ngan', s. €n*. The
true sound as heard in the provinces where mandarin is spoken, is a guttural
to which the English alphabet has no equivalent. No is employed for want
of a better symbol.

f In the mandarin Dictionary 3£ >5f TC "Wi *^6 initial va is placed with
u and ▲ under w; i is placed with u under y.

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P, L S. IV. INITIAL LETTBBS, 49

juxtaposition. The consonants t, ch, to which they respec-
tively belong are. also naturally allied, as may be illustrated
from our dialect, where ch becomes TS.

Many words written by Morrison yQh, yin, yen, ying, y5,
yu, yuen, yu6, take this initial, when they are in the lower
tones. N, when thus prefixed, precedes no vowel but i, ti.
The following are examples: — *

3g ni6k, ^ nien^ ^ ni6k, Jig nion,
^ niun, ^ men', |§ 'nti, j^ nion^,
IJt nien\ ^ niung, gj nil, ^nioh, b. yoh.

72. M. V. The class headed m includes not only the
mandarin words in m, but some that in mandarin begin with
w. They are therefore placed together in the Dictionary
system. Words thus transformed have v in reading as an
intermediate sound, and often retain that form in the collo-
quial. If they are not words in very common use, they do
not assume m as their initial. The following are examples: —
^ ml and vi, c. vi, R. 1^ mah, ^ mun, c, and r.
^ maw' and vaii*, c, vaw', R. 2S^, |^ vun, 'vil, c, and b.

Also P3 4^ ^ M 1^ ^ &^3 spoken mun', dec, and read vun', etc. In
«arly Chinese these words all began with b.

73. L. J. The fonner of these, m used in our dialect,
agrees with the native system, and with the northen mandarin,
and calls for no remark except 'that a very few words as be-
fore noted belong to the upper series. See Art. 56.

Under the initial j, are found all the Shanghai words in ni (c), and z (r),
which are j, in Mandarin. E. g. IM B M ^ M ^ M M ^ B
are spoken niang, &c., and read zang, &c.

Thus, A niun, c. zun, r. jin, m. a man.
^ nioh, c. z6h, r. juh, u. flesh.

Words that are setni-eoUoquial, or only used in combination retain z. E. g.
^ tl fl9 IS ?L *^® ^^^ ^^^ spoken 'za, zun, etc.

Thus, @ f^ zz^ zeit, c. and r. tsz^ jen, M.

*** Words in z from sh, or s in mandarin, never change into ni. Thus, the
natural separation between distinct classes of words is maintained, when theur
reading sounds are identical.

74. This class also includes r.h. The native tables make
no difference between j and rh, and in some parts of China

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50 THE BHAHOHAI DULKOT.

the initial j is in jih, sun, and some other words pronounced
like B.

flff J|[ rh H'si&, perhaps.
When thoroughly coUoquialized, however, these words pass
into n!, and must be placed under n or ng.
:l nl% 0. rh^, R. two.
1^ "^ ni 'tsz, or ng "tsz, o. rh, b. son.
^ ^ 'nl 'to, c. rh t6, b. ears.
ii. Finals.

75. The Sh^nghdi finals are about 60 in number. Ac-
cording to the native system, the whole of a word except the
initial letter and the aspirate if there be one, is included in
the final. In the Dictionaries, the finals, which unlike the
initials difier but slightly from modem mandarin pronuncia-
tion, are less numerous. The ^ ^ tsz* hwei* has 44. The
short tones which should be considered independent rhymes
are counted with the corresponding long ones, and thus the
number is diminished. The first table in K'ang-hi has six-
teen, and the second, twelve. Under each are several subdi-
visions. Another small and very convenient Dictionary, the
5 !:fr X ^ 'Wu fdng yuen yin, taking the five tone man-
darin dialect for its guide both in initials and finals, adopts
twenty of the one, and twelve of the other, and arranges them
under five tones. In reducing them to this small number,
some violence is done to the sounds. All words beginning
with a vowel, or NG are arranged under w and T. In the
finals, expedients are also employed to diminish the number
of headings.

76. In the finals, the departures from the mandarin type
are numerous, but they are according to system, and the
knowledge of one variation is usually a key to the pronuncia-
tion of many tens of other words. The variations are usually
the same for one long tone as for all.

In the following table which consists of words without a
diphthong, the first column contains the final according to
Shanghdi pronunciation; the second, all the examples of it
having different rhymes in mandarin; the third, the mandaiin
spelling; and the fourth, the Shdnghdi reading sound.

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p. I. 8. IV. TABUi OP iriNALS.

fil

Finals.

Shdngh^i colloquial.

Mandarin.

Shdnghdi reading
sound.

&

|ft 1^ (upper series.)

l&

p4i

p6

kid

ki^

»'k&

ki&i, kid

ki^ •

ttk'&«

k'wai

k'w6

!g'zft

jfe

ah

m fah

feh, f&

B§ hah

hiah, hi&

Ukah -

kuh, k6

kuh

&k

■ff p4k

puh, 'pa

puh

^z&k

J6hj6'

g mak, mok

muh, mfi'

mok

;5z4k

shlh,» sh

an

-fi. fail'

tan

^'kan

kian

kie»

&ag

Si ts&ng

chang

^ sdng

sung

sung

^ t&ng*

tang

tong

ff h&Qg, ynng

hing, hang

au

if 'hau

haa

T 'Aau, 7i6

hia'

y&

P^ kaa'

kiaa

kian

6

m'h6

hai

ffl6

lei, lui

Ss6

shwai

fflfp6«

pei

eh

m <lzeh

tsah, »t8a

if zeh

shih, »8h

g[ meh

mflh, *m(i

^seh

shwoh

soh

Jg weh

hw6h, "hwd

en

ippfin*

pwan

IB z6ft

ch'uen

# 'z6»

shen

eu

^ keu

kea

* "When there are two modes of spelling in the column of mandarin pro-
nunciation, the second is taken from the work ^ A B IS *vliich contains
the Peking pronunciation of words in the short tone, spelled according to the
syllabic system. Those to which on asterisk is prefixed are all in the lower
first tone.

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52

THB SHANOEAI DULEOT.

Finals.

Shdngbai colloquial.

Mandarb.

Shanghai reading
sound.

i

a'H

li

^Mf

lei

*k'i'

k'u

k'u

JE'si

sz

sz

gsf

sie

ih

:iiih

lih, 11'

•© ts'ih

ts'ieh, t'sie

9 sih

sioh, 'si6

tft sih

siuh, 8i6

ing

«! dzing

sittn

i& sing

sin

m smg'

sing

6

tfiP'6'

p'ft

^t86

ch6

tso .

ifcso'

sh6

8&

oh

ll^^oh

t6h,»t6

dk

ffi^dh

tflh,»tu

;f: moh, mok

mQh, mQ'

g koh, kweh

kw6h, »kw6

ok

^ p6k, Bok

p6h,» p6

Ullok

I6h, 16«

^ kok, k6k

ki6h, chi6

ki^

d»

j& ion (upper series)

tw^n

^ ng6»'

ng&n

«ng

:^ 86ng, sang

s6ng, sflng

ODg

^ song

s&ng

|g song

shwang

^ mong*

m6ng,mflng

m6ng

tL 'kong

kiSng

ki^ng

fl

^'sfi

so

:^M'

t&

U

T^'kd

kfi

11

>6jka'

kli ^

^kii

kwei

kw6

6(a)

i 'tsfl, tstt

cha

uk

[g[ dzak

chih, 'ch

Oe (tie)

H sQe (a)

sai

t

un (ng)

JH^ kun (g)

kun

il" sun (g)

shin (un)

:gctsvm(g)

tsfin

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p. I. S. IV, TABLR OF BHANGHAt AKD MANDABIN FINALS. 53

Finals.

Shdnghdi colloquial

tin

ff kfl»

if. sQn<

6ng (a)

M I6ng (ft)

ung

T hiing

P^ mung (n)

m

ii v(i, m

ng

HAng

rh

Hd A

8Z

S^sz

Jl'sz

7^:'8Z

Mandarin.

kdn

sw^n

I6ng (u)

hung

mun

wii

hung

sz, sh and shi
shu

.Slidnghdi reading
sound.

V6

Sll

stie

76.

The intermediate vowel i forais the following finals:

id

1

sie

816

iah

f kah

kiah^ kid

kiah

iak

JgLliah

lioh, lidu*

ia»

^ nian*

nien

iau

2k kiau*

kiau

i£ng

Sa 'k'iang

k'iang

i6

J. H'sid

t'sie

t'sie

leT^

jg sier^

siuen

H ^ier^

t'ien

^dze/i

t'siuen

dzie?fc

ieu

^ Jcien

k'ieti

^ sieu

fltih

iih

^ nyih

jeh

zeh

ioh

ffik'oh

k'iah/k'ti

ioh

M nioh

yueh

yoh

ion

^ffiMOTi

k'iuen

long

SI Ajiong

k'iong (u)

'^ ki6ng

kung

k6ng

iii

Ifthiu

hio

iuk

jjt niuk

nih

iun (ng)

1^ kinn (ng)

k'in

iung (n)

^ kiung (n)

kin

%

^ kiung

king

iiing

jol ^'mg

h'iung

itin

f|{ h'itiii*

hliin

Digitized by

Google

54

THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

77. The other intermediate vowels u, occurring only after
k, g, forms the fallowing finals : —

Finals.

Shanghai colloquial.

Mandarin.

Shanghai reading
sound.

1 1 —

^kwa

kwai

kwe

uah

^ kwah

kwah

naT^

M l^^aTi

kwan

wer^

'^ kwe/j

kwan

wo

JB. two

kw^

wok

fP kwok

kwoh, 'kwo

wong

5t kwong

kwang

wun (ng)

f^ kwnn (ng)

kwun

Obs. i. ^For dng and u«^, Morrison writes ting ; Prtoare ong. It will be
seen that in our dialect they are both in use. When a word is pronounced
alone, or when last in order, 6 is more common, while u prefers the first place
in combination ; ^ jl Sung-kong, Sung-kidng ; ^\% N'g song, Wu-adng ;
4* S A tsung koh niun, Chinaman; ^ ^ ^ ^ veh *la tong tsong, not
in the centre,

Obs, ii. Words in 6 from m. ai have two sounds. Some employ the
Scotch ae in sae^ nae, etc. nearly like e before r in the English words there^
where Others pronounce the English a in cake^ same, i. e. in our orthography
6, Ex. JjS f^ 16, 'h6, are constantly heard with both these sounds.

Obs. iii. Words in ^, beyond ^ ^ TTong dii', and :^ ^ |@ Tsii ka
koh, 25 and 80 miles to the west of Shanghai, change into on.

Obs. iv. On an, wan. The second of these mandarin finals passes into en or
on. The former reUins a for a. Ex. ^ ^ Me« tseu, Manchu; £ a\ ?C
'ng 16h ma«, 60,000 or 60,000.

78. If the old native tables of finals could be reduced to
a fixed Roman orthography, our dialect would be found to
bear more similarity to that pronunciation as its maternal
stem, than to its northern relative the modern mandarin.
The final k in the short tone was recognized, and many sub-
divisions of a final into two or more branches agree with our
usage; i. e. kwdn into kwon and kwan. Some southern dia-
lects preserve some parts and some others parts of this tra-
ditional pronunciation. The work before referred to, Le'
sh' yin kien' says, in the (/L ^J Fanlieh, IntrgductoryNoteSy

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P.I. S. IV, OBSBBVATIONS ON THE FINALS.

55

"Sm yun li vr6n wa?i, kw^;^ kwa^^ peyj -pan, fan tsz zun* si'.
Poh tooh. heh. rh we ih. " In the south (Kiing-ndn. etc.),
the pronunciation of the words pew paw, etc. is carefully se-
parated, while in the north, they combine in one (^) sound,*'

Another instance there given, of difference between the
north and south in the final, is in such words as ^ ^, m ^,
»|l M, ** fi, a ¥, ^ :S5 M. yin ying, k'in kMng, shin
shing^ lin ling, p'in p'ing, kin king. These the author says,
are carefully distinguished in the north, while in the south
they are identical in sound.

The rule of Shanghai pronunciation is this. Those words
that end in ng in mandarin keep it. Those words that end
in IN chaoge N into NO, while such as terminate in tin take
N or NG indifferently. Thus the above examples are read niun
(g) yung, iiun (g) Hung, zua (g) zung, Hng ling, ping ping,
kiun (g) kiung. •

Both of this write/s observations are exempEfled in the
table. It is there shewn how far precisely this coalescing
and subdividing of rhymes extends. One rhyme in either of
the dialects, may branch off in the other into four or even
six independent finals.

79, The most curious fact deducible from the table is, the
aflSnity of certain vowels for the terminating consonant k (g
before words in the lower tones) found in the short tone ; a
peculiarity which disappears a little south-west of Shdnghdi,
and is not noticed at Ningpo.

The principal forms of words in the short tone in manda-
rin, according to different systems of orthography in common
use are as follow : —

Morrison & Medhurst

Pr6mare *

Williams ^.x

This work

a

e

ee

eih ih

ue

ih

Qh

a

e

ie

1

ue

e

Gh

ah

eh

ieh

ih

ueh

eh

uh

ah

eh

ieh

ih

idh

uh

uh

6
6
6h
6h

Most words in the short tone ending in k, are of the last
three of these finals u, u, 6. Of the others, those in ih if they
take k often insert a short u, E. g. "jj is heard lik or liuk.
Similarly when words in uh and ^h do not take k, they

Digitized by LjOOQIC

56 ' THE 8HAK6HAI DIALECT.

change <ih and oh into eh. Thus, 5^ m6h becomes meh,
Kany words in conformity with this law, change their places
among the finals, and the collocation of a and e, with k is
carefully avoided, while u, u, 6, retain it with equal consis-
tency,*^ It should be observed however, that the a of man-
darin becomes a in the short tone, and the longer a is only
used as the coUoquialized form of u. B. g, "g" c. pak, b. puk.
Thus in Shdnghai usage, &, u, 6, o^ take k in the short tone,
a, e, o, admit no terminating consonant, while i remains
common.

This law is much simpler than that of the Fuh-kien and
other dialects of the south of China. But while in those
dialects, there are found as in the dictionaries three termi-
nating consonants, k, t, p, similar affinities to vowels are
traceable. In Fuh-kien with the exception of d, which all
three share between them, k usually prefers-one set of vowels,
and t and p another.

The native rule in the southern dialects, that k, t, p, are
merely the form assumed by the final letters ng, n, m, in the
short tone, is inapplicable to dialects, so far north as this.
In the native system of finals, this limitation is found indeed,
but is not rigidly adhered to. Some words in t are placed
under ng as well a^ n. Others in k occur under vowel finals.
The cases of conformity however, are so much more numer-
ous than the exceptions, that the rule is indubitable. Since
here only k is in use, the modern seat of the old pronuncia-
tion of the dictionaries must lie in part farther south. It
embraces indeed the seaboard provinces, from Shdnghai to
Canton with parts of Kiang-si and Hu-nan.

80. The letter n is also affected by the preceding vowel.
After a, e, o, £i, it is almost unheard when no word follows,
and though a well-defined consonant in the next word brings
it into notice, it is still only audible as a slight nasal sound »
The vowels i, o, refuse to be associated with it, and when u

* Words in k frequently interchange. Uk and ak do so throughout, while
6k, ok are often both in us«» for the same words.

Ex. jfC Jt* mob hoag, or xnoh hong, a timber yard.

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p. I.S.I V. IRRBaULARlTllfiS OF PRONUNCIATION. 57

precedes, it only holds its position in common with ng.
After H it is as in mandarin.

81. Out of 63 finals, there are twenty that vary their
sound in reading. In all these, there is an approach to the
mandarin pronunciation, and they are therefore employed,
by those born within the limits of the dialect, when they
wish to make themselves intelligible to strangers. In such
cases, they are usually under the delusive impression that it
is mandarin they speak. Such is the advantage of the al-
phabetic system, with its all-versatile and exhaustive appli-
cability, that a foreigner can pass from one dialect to another
so far as sound is concerned, with much greater quickness
than a native. The latter has no ready method of writing
new sounds down, nor is he practised in the art of separating
them into their alphabetical elements. Nothing but a long
residence in the region of another pronunciation, and some
natural flexibility of organs, can give him a different set of
tones, and a new arrangement of vowels and consonants.
The sight of a character suggests to him the sound, that he
learnt in his childhood, and having always regarded each
sound as a unity not separable into alphabetic parts, any
variation is too confusing and difficult of appreciation to be
readily adopted.

The total number of sounds in our dialect independent of
tones, is about 570. Morrison counts those of mandarin at
411, The difference is due to the broad initials b, g, d, v, z.

82. Irregularities of Pronunciation, Words that do not
conform in sound to the rules given in this section are few.

+ j£ s6^ '7igy (for seh i^g),ffteen.
^ dziew, R. is pronounced dien^, c.
gg lA di6h, R. They should be dzoh.
ff 'td, to strike^ in reading and colloquial is 'tdng.'**
^ R. n^, c. dy in d If, where.
^ :j^ R. 'su 'dz6, c. 'sQ z6, a house.
To these may be added the tendency of the initial k to be

♦ The sound tang is the older. The phonetic "X ting points to a final ng
as having formerly existed,

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1

58 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

pronounced, when standing before i, like t in the upper
series, and like D or dj in the lower.

PART II.

ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

Section 1. Native divisions,

83. Common teachers of the language in distinguishing
words, only use two pairs of terms, viz. ^, ^ zeh, h'ii, and
^, }g 'sz, to^h. The former signifies words that have a
meaning (full) and such as have not (empty). All substan-
tives are 5if ^ Ift 5eh zz' 'nga??. Auxiliary words or par-
ticles receive the name of jg ^ Jg h!\\ zz* 'nga^i. Verbs and
adjectives are placed by some writers in the first of these
classes, and by others in the second. Eemusat, says that
verbs are 5if ^ zeh zz*; a native author fl^ |^ 3^ Pih tv6
tsun treaiis, all words except substantives, as in the second
class.

84. The other pair of terms views words as nouns, which
are spoken of as 5E ^ BB si zz' nga^i, or verbs which are
JJf ^ 8R WQh. zz^ ngaTi. The usual sense of fg is living^
but by an extension of meaning, it is applied to anything not
fixed to its place, or liable to change in its appearance or
form. Hence, verbs as dependent on circumstances of time,
will, etc. are termed moving or transferable words, while
substantive are said to hejixed or dead,

85. The native writer just referred to, in a recent work,
IS" ^ ® ^ Sg IB 'le^ 'zu 't'sau dong pih ki^ on tlie parts
of speech and construction of sentences, has extended these
divisions, by forming the ^ ^ h'ti zz^, or words not sub-
tantives, into four classes : —

1. Adjectives ^ ]^ ^ uge h'ii zz^: —

Ex. "Jig kau, Jiigh, % tu, many. ^ ^aS great,
IS ^h ^^^^- il^ 'sau,/ei£7. h]\ 'siau, small,

2. Verbs }g ^ ^ ^^eh h'u zz': —

Ex. f^ tsok, to do, ^ dze?j, to deliver down.

3. P ^ M I& it ^ 'k'eu k'i' 'nil /dzu h'ii zz^ Under
this head he gives as examples : —

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p. II. 8. I. NATIVE DIVISIONS, 59

S l^^P ^'f'^^l Interrogative and other finals.
RJC tse,r 4E, ye,. ) i . #•

jlfc 't'sz, <7^i5. ^ 'su, which. } Pronouns and the sign of
:^ gi, he. ;£ tsz, of. \ the possessive.

iSe'sT I.'S!fe°"- I Adverb, &.ndi»y,erl„,

4. S fS dl ^ k'ong t^eh h'ti zz'.

Obs. The word weh is apparently employed, because coiyunctions like
verbs connect what goes before with what follows. Similarly, in Snglish
grammar the verb is the copula, while a large class of conjunctions consists of
such as are termed <;<>pw/ff<«W. The word ^ is prefixed to distinguish these
particles from verbs. The examples he gives are —

m sfie, although, in zu, like. ^

^ ^an^, but, ^ zak, as. > Conjunctions. *

^ xh^ further. J^ ne, then. \

hf^ ii^ it is not^ ^ ilf lahat? i Negative and interroga-

Jp peh, not. ^ Viyhoio? j tive adverbs.

These examples are from the language of books. The cor*
responding words in the dialect tvill be found in their places.

86. The frequent interchange of the parts of speech, and
the rhythmical construction of sentences, have almost kept
in concealment among the natives, the classification of which
words naturally admit. Much attention has been given to
the successive forms of the characters; the changes that have
occurred in them, and the principles of their original forma-
tion have been carefully chronicled; but etymological studies
have been comparatively neglected.

The rules of the Wun-chang, or exercises in fine writing,
have indeed been laid down, but they do not constitute the
grammar of the language. While grammar is a science still
unknown to the Chinese, it is a mark of the intellio-ence of
our author that he has approached so nearly, as the preceding
article shews to a western classification, and that he has de-
fined with precision, all the principal parts of speech.

The division into parts of speech, and simple and com-
pound words, gains in distinctness as we leave the books and
restrict our illustrations to the language of conversation and
much more when instead of embracing the universal man- •
darin medium, we aim to exhibit the dialect of a sino-le
district. '

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60 THB 8HAKGHA1 DULECT.

For example the words jft kfiS fg nung, ^ sdng, are in
the books verbs or nouns according to theii* position, their
tones ^maining unchanged. In the Shdngh&i dialect they
are all verbs, viz, to pass, can, to produce, if they stand
alone; but the combinations of which they form part are
often substantives. Ex. j§ ^ ka' seh, a fault; |g ij nung
lih, strength; ^ Jg sdng to^h^ work. Ming, Bfl which in the
books is an adjective or verb, must if used as a verb in the
colloquial have j^ ^^ah appended to it, otherwise it is an
adjective. Thus instead of terminations invented to carry a
root through two or more parts of speech, we have two roots
in opposition for the same purpose. In the following pages
accordingly, the terms noun; adjective, etc. will be predicated
of the combined forms each as a whole, and not of its cons-
tituent words except when viewed independently.

Section 2. Relation of the dialect to the written language,
and to other dialects.

87. In comparing the dialect with the language of books,
it will be best to go at once to the oldest. The earliest por-
tions of the Shu-king, Booh of Eistory, date from a period
that must have been at least 3000 years ago if not previous
to that of Moses. The occurrence of many of the commonest
words now found in the colloquial media of China in records
so ancient, is a sufficient illustration of the remarkable per-
sistence of the language. It thus appears that many of the
nouns and pronouns, adjectives and verbs, that formed the
staple of conversation in the days of Yau and Shun, are
found not merely in the pages of an old world literature, but
are still "familiar household words," among the whole Chi-
nese race. The selected examples which follow are all of con-
stant use in the Shfi.ngh&i dialect.

88, Examples of single words used in combination or
singly.

Names of natural objects, animals, &c.,
5c t'ien, heaven. ^ nioh, moon J^ 'mo, horse^
Jfc ti^y earth, ^ sing, stars. ^ nieu, ocr,

»J^ niun, man. iJj sa/i, mountain. ^ yang, sheep.

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P, II. S, II. RELATION TO THB LANGUAGE OF BOOKS. 61

ijC 'sz, water*. f(^ 'h^^ sea.

>HC 'hu,/re. ]g 't'sau, grass.

Divisions of time. -
^ t'sun, spring. B ^Y^K ^^V-

g Viau, summer. ^ nioh, month.

^ t'sieu, autumn. 'j^ sCle*, solar year.
^ tong, winter. :g^ ya% night.

Meteorological terms.
® fong, wind» |f le, f At«7w?er. ^ 't2, raiw.

Numbers.
— * ih, one. ;^ loh, seoj.

;il ni^, ttvo. ^ t'sih, 5et?eti.

H saw, ^7i7'ee- /V pah, eight.

pg 8Z\four. ji 'kieu, ?mie.

5£ 'ngjjive. ^ zeh, few.

Cardinal points.
;^ tong, east^ ^ new, sow^/*.

■g si, west. ^ p6h^ norfA,

Verbs.
^ ting*, fo/ic. |g nung, can.

|g kwe, re^a^rw home. /^ 'yen, /iare.

Adjectives.
P; <^^, grrea^. 4t hi,/et(7,

jig 'yon, distant. Ht dzuk, straight. ^

Nouns.
IP zue, 5tw, H 11, ceremony.

P5 mun, door. ^ sz, poetry.

Pronoun,
fg 'ngii, 7.

89. Examples of nouns composed of two characters, or as
they may be termed, dissyllabic forms.

^g" ^ pak-sing% the])eople. J: ^ zdng^-ti^, God.^
5c T t'iew-'au, the world. ^ %^ v6ng z^ong*, phoenix.
jE ^ tsung^-nioh, 1st month, f^ |g fah-du% mode of govern*
88 ?9 ts'ong-ming, intelligent. * [ment.

90. Examples of words used in combinations in the dia-
lect, but not singly.

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62 THB 8BAlfOHAl DULBCT.

JS^ as in 1^ 1^ 'tiau-niau, birds.

^ as in ^ ^ wong'iVy emperor,

jpl|l as in jpijl. ^ zun-ming, the inferior dimnitie9.

-fit as in Jl fi tV'iv^^, station.

:i^ as in :i^ H zz*-'t'I, matter.

"^ as in TJ j|^ 'k'6-'!, may ^. can.

B as in B Sfi nyih-deu, the sun.

^ as in ^ ^ sing-vun, intelligence.

^ as in ^ § soh-sQ, relate stories.
91 • These examples, which might if it were necessary, be
extended to a much greater length, will be sufficient to exhi-
bit, how the most ancient forms of si)eecb, the primitive words
of the Chinese race, have maintained their position to the
present time. In a similar way, the later classics comtem-
porary with Hebrew literature, and the most flourishing part
of the Greek, might be shewn to possess in a still greater
abundance, the materials from which this and other dialects
have grown into their existing form. But there are alsa
many new words; the passage of time must witness changes,
even in the language of a people so devoted to antiq^uity as
that of China. It has been shewn that there has been varia-
tion in tones, by referring to the pronouncing Dictionaries
made long since. The natives recognize great differences in
modern and ancient sounds, as seen in the rhymes of the Book
of Odes. Words also have changed; many expressions once
common have become antiquftted, and new ones have appear-
ed. A reference to colloquial mandarin will illustrate tliis
statement, and bring before us another large portion of the
materials of the dialect.

Relation to colloquial Mandarin. 92, The earliest ex-
amples of this form of Chinese, are found in works of the
Sung dynasty and in the historical novels. Mencius so re-
markable among the classic authors, for his picturesque ima-
gery and the animation of his style, sometimes uses combina-
tions, such as JU ;Si>^ng yew.^ , friend ; g gi ^z' 'ki, self;
seldom found in ancient books, and which may be considered
as conversational.

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p. n. 8. II. RELATION TO MANDABIN. 68

93. The following are examples selected from the San kwoh
chi H ® i§, and Lieh kwoh chi ^ H 5^> works now five
hundred years old, of new words not found in the classics,
and all in common use in our dialect-

^ zu', tree. :# i(?6*, am able to.

H kiah, /oo^ ft k'iuh, eat.

IBf z67i, hoat^ P4 kiau% call a person.

^ p'ih, stroke to the left, f £ 'long, bring together.
^ ^, take in order. ^ 'za, provoh.
gj k'au, knock. ^H t'sieu, restrain by holding.

^ t'sang, pole a boat. B§> dziau, to looK
^ t'sau, to copy. ^^ 'teu shiver.

P§ hoh, caZ^^o. ^i*^^ to pull.

^pOj to scratch. H^ tsiau^, destroy,

94. Of the following new pronounsj and interrogative ad-
verbs first found in the historical novels, there is scarcely
any use made in the Shanghai dialect.

fg Jg M. shen^ 'm6? what? ^ fi M. 'n& ai? lohere?

JY Jg shih 'mo? what? ^ @ ch6* ko^ this.

^, ^ 'tsun 'm6? how? j^ t*a', he.

Obs, The Shanghai pronouns are all different from those, except the mutilat-
ed form 55 IS '* 'li^ wJtere? So for the most part those of Fuh-kien ; which
again differ entirely from those of the Canton dialect as contained in Bridg-
man'a Chrestomathy. Some pronouns are widely spread. Thus, ngo ^ I,
exists in all these dialects. As a class however, they are among the words
most liable to variation in colloquial Chinese.

95. The following examples of double words taken from
the same works, will further illustrate the extent to which
mandarin phraseology agrees with that of our dialect. They
are all such combinations as are not found in the classics, and
might be increased indefinitely.

/^ ^ niun ka, a man.
IS SS ti deu, lower the head.
^ |g k'e zen, unmoor a boat.
flt M 2Z zun, an hour^ i. e, twelfth of a day.
tB ^ *sau k^*, shield one'sself '

(c)^ Jft po^g <i2u^, to assist.

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64 THE shaStghai bulbct.

IS ft (c) zen tsdh, hoots; or a boat
fl? ^ 'p'iiig B^iigS throw away life.
§ ^ k'ow^ kienS ^o see,
3S ^ z^^ '^^^j maimed hand.
SH § ll' e% dangerous, severe^
(^)i-f SB '^z s^S minutely,
M Wt '^^ s^^9 explanation.
H ^J( dzong* 'tau, ^Jt^^/t do«;n,
^ ^ kiung^ 'dz6ng, revere.
^ Jj- tsfie* 'hau, very good.
^ % niun* tuh, Aiiou; a person.
^ R^ (o) t'song' 'z6 J join one's hands in respect.
in ^ '^^^ 'zu, 56^ ?*/) on end.

The characters marked (c) are those that were invented, to represent coUo-
qnial words written for the ^t time. The rest are old classical characters,
hut they are not found in these combinations.

97. On comparing the old historical novels, with mandarin
colloquial tales of the present dynasty, such as the weU-known
1^^^ Dream of the Red Chamber, no closer analogy with
our dialect appears. The style indeed is much more diffuse,
being a faithful copy of what real conversation is, and so far
it is more like provincial dialects. But as to words, the auxi-
liary particles Tin which the chief changes occur), are pecu-
liar to mandarin, and the verbs and nouns are the same as
those of earlier works.

Thus, 65l tih occurs constantly instead of ;^ ch, which is
the most common sign of the possessive in the Three King-
doms. As the third personal pronoun, ^ 'nd takes the place
of ^ gi. The word for said, yoh, a term not used in
conversation, is replaced by ^ |g shwoh't^ii, either together
or apart,

98. Having thus briefly considered the historical division
that the dialect admits of, into primitive and modern words,
something should be added on local terms, constituting the
remainder. On examination it will be found that the words,
single and compound, not in mandarin, are few. They can
scarcely be many more than a hundred. In a list drawn up
for the purpose by a native, of about 100, a third part con-

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p. II. S. II. BBLATION TO COLLOQUIAL MANDARIN. 65

sisted of verbs, another third part of particles, the rest com-
prised substantives, adjectives, and words imitative of sounds.
Many of these belong also to'the dialects of the neighbour-
ing cities. In the histories of Sd-cheu and Sung-kidng, the
short chapter devoted to the subject of colloquialisms, enum-
erates several that belong equally to Shanghai. They ap-
pear to have been copied in great part from one work into
another, and the whole number recorded in each does not
reach fifty. Those contained in the history of Shdnghai, will
be found in the following pages under the parts of speech to
which they belong. In Medhurst^s Dictionary of the Fuh-
kien dialect, there are classified lists of about 250 phrases
peculiar to that province. Some of these however are cor-
rupted forms of expressions used in the other parts of China.
99. The neighbouring dialect of Su-cheu may be expected
to have much in common with that of Shdnghdi, The system
of pronunciation is in general the same, the initial consonants
forming a hard and soft series, corresponding to the upper
and lower tones in the southern provinces. The following
are examples of phrases, the same as those of Shanghai.
M Pf 'na hdng? how? # ^ veh zzS it is not.

& ^ zz' k4 self, . ^ tft tQ hau', very many.

# >h veh kuS not so, % i^ maw' Hie?i, little sloiver.

1ft P§ tsu' SB.'? what do yoM.^fQ g| ku* deu, there.
^ ^ ku' h'ih, at present. j@ ^ ku* kfiS that.

^ tse (m. 7), sign of completion.

^ 'tsz (m. J), sign of past participle.

^ ku* (M. 65), sign of possessive,

^ veh (M. ^), simple negative.

^ dsie?* (M. ^), all

n 6^' (M- S Jg).? what?

J^ 16 'tau 'hau nung, well, in a good mannei\

JS ^ il 'siang zah 'tsz, having thought of.

S M f i 'la oh 'li, at home,

^ j^ zz* k6* (s. seh k6 nung), thus.

In some words very commonly occurring, that dialect dif-
fers from Shanghai and agrees with mandarin. •

-o*

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66 TH8 BUAtQUAl ClALEtlt.

This, M. ^ >^ ch^* ku^ s, H >^ tV ku*.
He, M. jji t'a. B. ^ I.

How?M. ^ Jg ;BI 'tsun 'mo y4ng'?

Section 3. Oti ^Ae Substantive.

100. The native grammarian ah*eady introduced to the
reader defines substantives, or rather substances, thus ^ JJ
^ fj^y MI&^M T'ieT^ di' ming veh* ziang* su^ zz' 7i,
" Heaven, earth, names and things, images, numbers, facts
and principles;" Jl W ?^ W ®j W ^ W S va?i 'yen yiuug
'yen tseh 'yen k'l 'yen sung, " all things that have form,
material substances, breath and sound;" — " -Iff W ® RT ^ ^
ih t'sih 'yen ton 'k'6 '^sz 'tse, "all things having any pro-
perty that can be pointed out;" '^ If ;5l Hf ^ l^i^ ^6' *sz
seh zz*, '*^are called substantives,"

*^The names of substances," he adds, "may consist of one
or several characters, which must be arranged in classes,
brought under the dominion of the rhythmus, and stored in
the memory for use when required," Such nouns as express
the properties of substances he calls ^ i^ 'tsz zz^, "son cha-
racters," while the names of the substances themselves are
termd -^ i^ 'm^ zz% "mother characters." Attributes he
further subdivides into " universal," ^ ^ ^, ^ kong gong'
'tsz zzS and " special," ^ ^ •?, ^ seh ze 'tsz zz^

Combined and uncombiried substantives, 101. One of the
most striking peculiarities of Chinese words, whether nouns,
verbs or particles, is the strictness with which the laws of
combination ^nd order are observed. Each dialect has many
words that can be used with or without an adjunct, and. may
be regarded as purely monosyllabic; another large class em-
braces such as are never used by the natives, except in appo-
sition with some other word, and constituting for that dia-
lect, what may be considered dissyllables. Of the former or
monosyllabic kind are the following examples (s. c),

IS vaTi* coohed rice. ^ mauS cat. ^^ 'keu, dog.

^ ytin, clouds. § muh, inJe. |g ydh, medicine,

3g 'll, moral law^ ^ me, coal. ^ sih, snow.

102, In construction, these and similar words may be ob-

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p. II. S. Ill, COMBIHATION OF StTBBTANTIVES. 67

served to remain in an uncombined state. The first word in
each of the following sentences exemplifies this remark,

^ H J^ -S '^1 ^^^ '^^^ '^? ^^^^ you brought rice?

A ^ -^ >^ ^ niun 'zz ih yang^ ku, I am a man as well as

tt ^ ii^ dzieu* yau' du% let the sleeve he large. [you.

These words may all. of them be used in combination, ac-
cording to some of the laws described in the succeeding para-
graphs. Thus they appear in dissyllabic forms such as —

^ ^ 'mi ka*, price of rice., -j^ A ^"^* nimiy father,

103. Thtf other class consists of those words that are ne-
ver used without an adjunct. For example ^Pc i, dress, not «
used alone, is found among other combinations in the follow-
ing.

3J!$ ^ i zong, clothes. ^ ^Pc pu' i, cotton clothes.
So also 5|f tsz, zeh, g vong, ij| 'li, are found in com-
bination only.

^t M *sz lu, a pig. ^ M ^u' vong, adopted child.

JH ^If kong tsz, the river pig (a fish),

JH ^ 'li veh, presents. ^ nyih zuh, eclipse of the sun.

104. In construction, the adjuncts unless the rhythmus
requires it, cannot be omitted.

^ ^ !^ tsdh 1 zong, pxit on clothes.
^^M.^ sah tsz lu ku', porh butcher.

H SI ^ ill iiyili deu lok sa7^, sun is setting.
II M -? *su vong 'tsz, let a house.
^MM^^^^g^ '^^^^\ offer presents.
Combination. 105, Substantives are formed of two or
more substantives combined in various ways. If the colloca-
tion, consists of species and genus, the former precedes.

fg ^ pah zu', cypress. ^ ^ dzo w, teapot'.

fe ^ soiig za*, pine. ^ g t'ih dari', iron bullet.

}g ^ tsieu u, wine chalice, ^ g ki da/i*, hen's egg.

tt ^ ?E mau*-ta7j' hwo, moutan poeony.

^ ^ IS i^^t-siang* zm, pleasure boat.

i^ ?& >G ka-«e/j zah,/rs^ doorstep.

^J]^ mu tau zah, grind-stone.

& # H "^i ^^ong w6^ mau*-'tsz, red tasselled hat.

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68 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Obs. In the last five examples, the first two words constitute the species.
The word ^ zah requires |[§ as its appendage, if there is no specific term
prefixed. When compounds are formed, the auxiliary word is omitted. In the
last case ^ tsz, the auxiliary is retained, or dropped at pleasure.

106. When the compound substantive formed by juxta-
position, consists of whole and part, or substance and acci-
dent or attribute, the former precedes.

^ )J^ 'seu sing, palm of the hand.
^ ^ 'sen t'au*, gloves,
j^ jj^ zix' kun, roof of a tree.
jj^ 3^ zCi' ih, leaves of a tree.
» li ^ ^eu fah, hair.

•g" 1^ 'seu seh, head ornaments^

107. When two or more substantives, cognate in meaning,
or in some logical relation, are in apposition, their order de-
pends on native usage.

^ ^ t'sing kioTi*, relations. ^ ,§, sing^ sih, lett^^rsandneios.

:^ ^ kd lu*, the road. g ^ hu* suh, goods.

m 56 y^^Z kwong, glory. f^ ^ dz6 bdh, money and silJe.

fH J^^ foh loll zeu^, happinesSy affluence and age.

fS ^ M ^ 'tsieu suh dz6 k'i', winey lust, riches and anger.

Obs. i. The primary reason of the order in which these words are used,
may have been a real or fanciful sequence of ideas, convenience of pronuncia-
tion, rhythm or caprice; but whatever it was, it is strictly preserved. Should
another order be adopted, the meaning would not be conveyed. To these and
other fixed combinations, found in all parts of speech, must in great part be
attributed, the facility with which a language of monosyllables and tones such
as the Chinese, is employed as a conversational medium.

Obs. ii. Many words found in compounds of this sort are inseparable. Thus
§ kibn' has no other use in the dialect, than to form these combinations.
As a verb to eompassioruite^ its use is limited to the books.

Obs. iii. Under this head may be included antithetical substantives (Xi-
ter<B oppoaiUBj Premare), of which there are several in common use without a
particle between them. S$ 3^ tsi (elder sister) me' (pounder do.), sisters;
'^ ^ kiwn (birds), seu' {beasts), animals; 5C flfe t'iew di', heaven and earth;
^j^ fa. vti', husband and wife ; lU >!fC A- ^ saw 'sz niun veh, mountains,
water, mm and things : ^ i^ ^ "X ^ong 6ien niung 'tsz, copper and silver
money.

Obs. iv. Phrases of this sort are not coined ad libitum. They are old forms,
and the modem Chinese do not allow themselves to make new onesi Each
dialect has its own traditional arrangement of words, as well as its panhjular
mode of enunciating the tones, and its alphabetical variations. But there is

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. in, SUBSTANTIVES FOBMKD BY VEBBS, ETC. 69

in all the dialects, so large a majority of phrases as well as words, common to
the rest of China, even in that of Fuh-kien, that the identity of the language is
in no district brought into question by these dififerences.

108. Some of these combined forms consist of a substan-
tive and an enclitic. Of the auxiliary words thus used ^
'tsz, SK ^eu, are the most common.

^ -J^ keh 'tsz, a pigeon^ J^ ^ sih 'tsz, matting.
fA fk •?*' ^^^^ f^h 'tsz/ machinery,
JM M l^weTJ* deu, saucepan. ^ gg lieu deu, pulley.
^ 15 tse/i deu, bricks. |g ]g wo' deu, words.

# S 19 kweh-'rh deu, an axle.

These enclitics are never used in the classics; they form a leading charac- *
teristic of colloquial Chinese. 'Tsz and <eu give individuality and definiteness
to the term they quaUfy. Their proper meaning, «fl», head, is in these cases
lost; they help also to fill the rhythm of the sentence, and to distinguish the
words to which they are appended from othec terms like them in sound. The
enclitic J^ rh, so common in the mandarin provinces, and also in the dialect
ofHang-cheu, has ita'place supplied by ^ 'tsz. Nyih 'tsz H 3^, dayva
distinguished from nyih deu ^ the stin^ by the enclitic.

109. To express a place where persons come and go, the
words II deu and ^ dz^ng are appended to substantives,
^ J^ lih sih, or sih alone, expresses small fragments of.

^ 5K h\6\\ deu, place of carrying on trade.

^ H iiau deu, landing place of a bridge.

Ji^'modeu, „ .,„ of a ferry.

^ j^ 'in. dzang, place of gaming.

jII^ ^ h*i dz^ng, place of seeing plays.

^ ^ nieu dzang, place of tethering cattle.

^ |£ M ^^ lih sih, small fragments of firewoods

110. Verbs and adjectives form compound substantives,
by taking after th«m such auxiliaries as 5| feu, f^ fah and
^t'su^

^ HI SS 'y^^ P^^' deu, there is a way of doing it.

P§ ^ j^ ^ 'zil t'su*, noplace to sit down.

W P§ ift fi V®^ ^^ ^^^' ^^^ ^ ^'^ there a way of doing if?

P§ P^ J^ j^ m sa* 'hau t'sftS no benefit in it.

jK IB i^ S 'na nung 'hau fah.? hoio is it good?

-g 51 dzdng deu, overplus.

^1] g|, ^ gj dzung^ deu, u deu, remainder.

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70 THE SHANGHAI DIALBOT.

^ W IS 1^^ 2^^ ^^^j ^ simple J honest person. .
!S IS ■? 'k'd 'nau 'tsz, one very poor and wretched.

111. Many of the auxiliary substantives treated of in the
next section, whose office it is to stand between numerals and
their nouns, often follow their substantives without a nu-
meral. A compound IS thus formed, in which the sense of
the classifying particle is often preserved, A piece of is ex-
pressed by k'we. A har of by tiau,

JSJ: ^ ping k'weS piece of ice. ^ kong diau, steel spring.

Ift 1^ z6'/i tsah, boats. X M ^^^ deu, a man.

g: ;2f: sa 'pun, hoolcs. |K 5|'tsz tsang, sheet of paper.

112. The words ^ ffi, ^ 'sen, f^ tsoh, |£ zidng^ "^ fjf
EZ* vGS ^ k^, A niun, are appended to substantives to de-
note agents, trades and professions.

1$ ^ kiak fu, a porter. % ^ h'iung 'sen, murderer.
/fC f^, ?fC E mok tsoh, or moh zi^ng*, carpenter,
^i^jV&UCK'^ tsoh, or ni 'sz ziang^, bricklayer.
li E "^ I8r 'ia ziang' sz* vu*, shoemaker.
^ H "3 i!f dz6 v6ng sz* vu*, ^a^7or.
;g ^ ticTi kd, shop-keeper. |ft §^ z^/i kd, boatman.
IE .1^ A tsoh »gr ni\m,f Sherman.

ikyk Asihza. niun, w7oorf gatherer.' [right.)

'M M tung (ea5^) kd, master (tvho places his guests on the
JS, ^ 'li s4ng, director of rites. ^ ^ sicti sdng, teacher.
Obs, In the longer examples, some verba will be found which enter into
composition, as those in Art. US.

113. Verbs and adjectives are frequently compounded in
the same way as substantives.

M S ping {to screen) fong {the wind), a screen.

^ :^ va {to support)'i'm\\ {the hand), hand-rail.

P£ M k'iuh {eat) gioh (food), food.

>J> Jl 'siau tsia, young lady.

T& H 'ku (old) Hong, curiosities.

^ tf 'hu {conbine) ki* (plans), partner in business.

^ J^ pien' {to plait) Hsz, the queue.

^ jg t(;ong {yellow) long (w;o^,) «(;ease?.

^ Ig t'seu (^0 rfrate; o^O t'i' (dratuer), a drawer.

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P, II. S. III. SUBSTANTIVES FOBMBD BY COMBINATION. 71

^ ^ sing (raw) \i {pears), pears.

?B 3&C liwo (flower) (Jng {red)^ small apples.

^ fg kiun boh, {thin) gold-leaf.

4B J^ sidng (wt*^2^Z) hau {good) intimate friends.

114 The word pj|, merely euphonic, is joined to the names
of persons, both relative and proper. Thus instead of ^ ^
ko ko, elder brother, we have in Shangh^ f^ ^ ah (r. a.)
ku also p^ ^ or ^ ^ ti& tia, father. When applied to the
names of children and others in humble life, either word in
the proper name may be- annexed.

115. Some examples of foreign words used in the dialect,
and of colloquial substantives, ex:tracted> from the history of
Sh5.nghai are here appended.

^ )t^ p'ieTi^, opium,

^ ^ ka so, Buddhist priest's robe. Sanscrit Kashaya.

IE (^) M (c) ti' lih, wings. M. 'ch pang rh.

Jl \\i (c) ni* p6, tail, (jg) r, ^vi) M. i pa.

>J> S (c) 'siau noTi, little boy,

^ (0) heu% the king-crab , rainbow. M. kang', r. j£ hung.

M \% (c) y^^^ doh, icicles, M. ping chiu* 'tsz.

^ !JL (c) y^ng 'nd, goafs milk.

i^ (c) ]s!yfa.n,. chopsticks, m. k'wai tsz,

Jg ® (c) ie7i t'song, chimney, m. yen 't'ung.

^ Jft y^ ni&ngj/a^^er aw<ci mother, m. tie niang.

Obs. Characters followed by (c) are such as are borrowed, to represent
purely colloquial words.

New and colloquial words are usually written on the phonetic principle, as
may be noticed in the first three examples. Natives differ much in their way
of writing purely colloquial words, and being never made use of in books, it
matters little what character is adopted.

116. The last way of forming compound substantives to
be exemplified, is by the particle {g k(i% which coming after
a verb and noun expresses an agent.

pg ^ @f k'iuh liang ku, (living on imperial rice), soldiers.
^ IS ® t'sang z^n ku*, those who work boats.
^ BI f@ 'kw^T^ tsang' k6', account-keeper.
J[ :jfg ^g ma* hwo ku*, flower-seller.
M Wi\B 'pa ^^' ka', ferryman.

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72 THE SHANGHAI DULKCT.

Obs. The common word fij tih and in books ^ te^ is not nsed in this
dialect its place being sappied by {S ku' as in these examples:

Bepetition. 117. Substantives are in some cases repeat-
ed. Forms indicative of diminutiveness are such as occur in
the following examples.

P^ ^" S M '^^^ ^ SHig slug, look! there is a star.

|g — lilj iJt yau* ih 'tie« 'tiew, / want a very little.

118. A' few repeated forms occur, with an adjective pre-
ceding in opposition,

ffif f@ !l^ ^^ dong d6ng, a dari place.

^ % % lidng 'kwong 'kwong, a glimmer of liglU.

Obs. Such forms of repetition are rare, except when they express plurality
(v. Art. 129). In the adjective and verb, they are much more common. See
also Part III. Bepetition.

119, The formation of compound suhstantives, by the sim-
ple apposition of two or more roots, is also found in other
languages. English and German contain many examples.
Substantives, adjectives, and verbs all enter into these forms,
E. g. hearsay (v. v.), sunset (s. v.), windfall (s. v.), footstool
(s. s.), farewell (v. adv.), lebewohl (do. German), adieu (prep.
8. Fr. Eng.), addio (do. Ital,), safeguard (a. s.), white-bait (a.
s.), Rath-haus {s. s.), council-house (s. s.). Though many
of these words are written without a break, the accent on
the penultimate indicates, for those that are English, that
they are compounds. In languages that have an extensive
system of terminations such as Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit,
when composition occurs, the constitueiit roots become one
word, and the affix of declension, &c. in the word that precedes
is usually omitted. Thus, in avTadek^og- and avrSxeip the
simple root aut precedes the word to which it is joined, in one
case with no adjunct, and in the other with the connecting
vowel o. In the Latin word reapuhlica, reipubliceB^ we have
two roots in apposition, without the process of declension be-
ing interrupted. Cases of simple juxtaposition such as this,
are much rarer in the ancient languages than in the modern,
where the root admits of few variations in its form.

120. In the development of a language consisting of mo-
nosyllabic roots, where nothing can be added or altered, some

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p. II. S. III. COMPENSATION FOB WANT OF INFLEXIONS. 73

equivalent for terminations and compounds must be expected.
This want is met in the Indian languages of Amertca, by
combining several independent roots into one word. If for
these agglutinated syllables, separate characters were reser-
ved, it would be a system resembling the Chinese. We have
in the latter (1), simple apposition of roots, as exemplified
in articles 105, 106, 107. Second, there is a change of certain
substantives into mere particles which are appended, depri-
ved of their primitive meaning, to large classes of words, as
seen in articles 108, 109, 110. Forms of this second kind
!m^ M^ usually expressive of simple ideas only ; the others may
be simple or compound. The terminations of tense and case
in the classical languages came from the simple apposition
of separate words. Those of the first, second, and third per-
sons of a verb are derived for example, from the three cor-
responding personal pronouns. Obsolete forms preserved in
the oldest writers countenance this theory. Whether the
primitive speech of mankind was of this sort, may be matter
of controversy, but there can be no doubt that the Chinese
language has this peculiarity.

121. Variation in tone might be enumerated as a third
mode of supplying the want of inflexions. Examples in the '
spoken language are however extremely few. In jg ts6ng%
to sow, and ^ ^ 'tsong 'tsz, seed^ the tone differs. But
even here the enclitic -J is an inseparable appendage to the
noun. Some other examples here follow: —
— |bJ ih w6\ one time. fe) J|£ ive le, come hacJe.

H ^ mQ* 'tsz, a mill. H |^ mil mah, grind wheat.

^ i% k'ieri^ zung, towing-rope. ^ |g k'ieTi z6ri, toxo a boat,
f^ IX t'ili ting, iron nail. $f !^ ting^ lau, nail fast,

JM ^ y^ng k6, ought. ^, |^ yung' 'hu, a promise.

^ ^ sidng pong, to assist, ^ ^tsb^ smng', chief mandn.

Obs. The superior comma on the rigjit shows where the words whose tone
varies should receive the quick rising tone, or Shanghai k'u shing.

Gender. 122. Gender is expressed by auxiliary words*
set apart for the purpose. It being thus merely an instance
of adjectives and substantives in apposition, the arrangement

Digitized by LjOOQIC

74 THE SHANGHAI DULECT.

requires the words descriptive of sex (^ n^n^ -fc '^ti), or

gender*(||j| t'sz, ^ yiong) to precede.

^ H llH H yiong-ki t'sz-ki, a cock and hen.
'^ ft ^ iSP "^l ^^ ^^^ yioQg sz-tsz, a male lionj^
^ Js, ne/j niun, hushand. ^ g 'nti noTi, a girL
123. Among the words used in the Shdngh^i dialect to

express family relationship are the following: —

^ ^ tia im, father, ^ ^ tsi fu, brother-in-law,

P^ $J| ^^ '^^9 mother, Jg ^ sun 'nti, grand daughter.

Pqf J;5 ah 'n^, grandmother. ^ ^ ngd^ sang, sister's son.

f6 fS pah p^h, e?cfe5^ wr^cZe. ^ Jf 'nti sih, son-in-law. /ha. f ^

^ ?K ya soh, younger do. ^ ii ku mo, husband's sister.

i% Jl niang gieu^, mother's ^ JK ku niang, father's sister,
brother. f^ ^% ah f, wife's sister.

^ A dz^ng' niun,/a^/ier- p^f JJ| ah sau, brother's wife.

in-law. ^ J§ dzang* m>, mother-in-law.

f^ i^ sing tCs daughter-in |^ S ah dzeh, brother's son.
law. ^\% ^ ngd^ kong, mother's fa-

P^ jj^ ah tsi, elder sister. , ther.

j^ j^ me^ me^, younger do. $[% ^ ngd bti, mother's mother.

Number. 124. The form of the substantives in the sin-
gular and plural is the same. The auxiliary adjectives and
adverbs used to express plurality are placed some before and
some after their words. Ts6ng^^ tu hau\ 'hau 'kij and td
precede their noun. Dz^n, t'6h, invariably follow their words.

125. ^ tsong* precedes its noun and expresses univer-
sality,

^ "B" 1^ tsong* p^k sing*, all the people.
^ 'fifc PiJ ts6ng* tve^ d, all yoic persons.

126. ^ 1^ tu hau*, and 'hau 'ki J^ ^ describe a great
number or several. Being double inseparable particles, they
form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore can
be separated from their words, and placed afterwards with
a copula and a terminating particle.

* In the books ^/ong, t'sz, are restricted to birds, and ^ ping' and 4fc
men' to.aninals. In the collofjuial of tliis part of Cliina, the pair of words
above are used hi all cases.

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p. II. S, III. BUB8TANTIVIB8. /NTTBtBEB & OASB, 75

p^^ ^ W ^ W"^^ ^^^* ^^'i zz^, a great many things.

^VW^tfS ^6^ zz' 'yeu tu hau' U, <^ere are very

many things.
^ M ^ A *^^^ 'ki ku' niun, a good many men.
A W i& M 'T^ '^i^^ V®^ '^^^ 'k^ ''^^S ^^€^« «>*« several men.
127. ^ tu, several^ like ts6ng^ cannot form a complete
member of a sentence alone, and therefore precedes its word.
It is used extensively with the specific substantive particles
already alluded to. The word tu, many, retains its old sound
ta for this use.

H j51 i^ Jf ^'^latsztakiun'tse,7^a^;e&o^«grA^5e^;eraZca^^^6«.
^ 1^ ta i(;e', several times.

^ ^g ^ td ku' k6h du*, or t^ koh, several kingdoms,
^ ^ ^ Ig" ta kti* seh t£?6', raany sentences.
^ 128. The words ^, ^, dze», t'oh following their sub-

stantives, usually from the first word in the concluding mem-
ber of the proposition. '
^ P^ ^ ^ W '^^ 1^^ ^^^^ ^'^^ y®^5 there are both rice and

meat.
A ^ ^ ^ ]S^ niun dz6n 'la k'ow* hi', they are all looking
at the play,

Obs. Pronunciation places these auxiliary particles in closer union with
the following word, than with their own noun. Yet the rhythmus often at*-
tracts the two members into one sentence. E. g.

Jl A ^ W ^^^^ '^^ ^'^^ '2/®^> ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ women are all there.
*^ M ^ ^ kwew 'fu dze^ 'hau, the mandarins are all good.

129. The plural is also formed by repetition.
A A ^ ^ niun niun 16 Hse, the men are all come.
S S ic ^ kok kok t'd* bing, nations all at peace.
1ft ift f^ fii sz' sz' de* d6*, age after age.

Case, 130. The genitive or possessive case is expressed
by f@ ku'. It corresponds to ffy tih,M. ^ ge, ^, Fuhkien, {g
ko*, Canton.

^ >jv ^ ^ i ku' sang k'i', his voice:

:jfg >^ ^ Hg hwo ku^ 'ntisdeu, the buds of flowers.

A "1^ ® ?L ^^"^ ^^^ mian*' 'k'ong, the human face.

Obs. When the possessive particle is omitted, a compound substantiye is
formed, as hwo 'nii deu,^tf?^r buds. Here no transposition is necessary, the

Digitized by LjOOQIC

76 TAB "SHANGHAI DIALECT.

predicated part standing last in both cases. English idiom placing the snb-.^ |
ject after the possessive particle, also requires the definite article to begin the ^ »
sentence, *' the buds of flowers." When the constituent words are not adapted
to form a compound substantive, as in the first of the examples above, the
particle is always retained.

131. The objective case has no particle to mark it. It is
known by position, coming after the verb. The nominative
always precedes the verb.

^^ Pf\% 'ngu kau* su' nd^, I tell you.

3§§ ^ — ' y2|si song 'ngu ih 'pun, give me a booh

^ H M A veh yau' mo' niun, do not rail at people.

^^PitM kau' su' I 'U 'ts6, I have told him.

132. Only the verb fj w6\ to say^ requires a particle to
precede the objective noun. The words ^, ^, SR, t'i^, W^
t'eh, may either of them be employed,

^ # If IS 'iig^ t'l' »^* ^^S I tell you.

JcS 1^ IS 1^ ^ ^'®^ 1 ^^^ meh Hse, tell him,

3^ 1^ IS & ^ teM ti;6* ;ia 'tse, have told him.

Obs. This verb being intransitive, and standing last, leaves the substantive
ungovemed, and renders a preposition necessary. So in English say requires
to after it. In Latin, the noun is put in the dative without a preposition, »&
dico vobia,

133. The sign of the dative in da mihi^ and give it to me
is omitted. The euphonic particle 'la ^ is used to fill up
the rhythmus.

|g f^ — @ peh 'ngii ih ku% give Tne one.

is IR i& fS pe^ vaw '\h 'ngu, give me rice.

i8 IS ^ WS P^^ ^^'^^ '^?>^ k'iuh, ditto.

\^ ii^%^ V^"^ *s2i 'ngu meh 'ts6, give it to me.

f SI ii ^ ^ ^ peh '1^ i '\k 'tse, have given it him.

Obs. i. In English to is omitted or not at pleasure. Such datives as occur
in Gloria ^atrij dedicated to the interests of truths my love to you^ cannot be ex-
pressed.

Obs. ii. In the example peh 'ngu ih ku', the dative comes next to the verb,
while in the following sentence, the object precedes it. These differences of
position are occasioned by the rhythmus.

134. To a place is expressed by pj tan*, usually with a
verb of motion following the substantive.

5*J i^ ffl ^ ^ *a^* Su-tseu k'i' Hse, gone to Su'cheu.]

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II, S. III. SUBSTANTIVES. CASE PARTICLES. 77

M^W^\ J^^'^^^ *^^^ Zong^ 'he, when did you come

to Shdnghdi?
iilj Jft ftl 3|£ 4ft P# ^^^ '*'sz di^ 16 tsa^ sa ? what do you

come to do!

135. Motion from .or hy (aWative) is expressed by g zz%
|3§ zong, 1^ ye«i or fj* 'tdng. Tlie last of these is most fre-
iq^uently employed,

^ P§ ^ ^ 3j5 'taog sd^ u doag le? tvhenee do you come ?
^ tkMk^ 'tdng ku* piew Hsot, gro that way.
IK ^ ^ 1^ M II dzdng dl^ dah tau^ oh Ui, /r<?m hence
home.

136. The. sense of /or, instead of is given by several par-
lieles, ^, ffi, ffi #, 55, :g, t'f , de, d^ t% t'uh and tt;e% are
all in nse«

!S f? "^ H t'uh^ngfi k'l^ 'm^ go and buy for me.

^ ;& ^ P^ ^^ ^ '^g^ l^^ — ^^ ^y (^^(^Qunt — . [you.

^ 1ft is 4 J5 *'^^ ^®^^g *su' stog t(?eh, do W9rh instead of

137. In and a^ (locative case) are expressed by JU ^ leh
^a and ^ a£ before, and 3g 'K or |g |fjj 'li h'idng^ after the
substantives, (m. :j3£ tsai^ prefixed, ^, ft, r|», 'll, niii', chong
eufl&xesj

#7 iS: S ^ vdi 'K 6h '\U n^ at home.

^ J4 ± ii veh 'U Z6ng* 'hS, wo^ at Shdnghdi.

ri S ^ iUft leh 'Id veh leh 'Id? at home or not ?

^ MM ^et 1®^ 'l^j ^^ ^* /iomf.

PH ^ X ^ tsz* ll ktog ft, were words.

)^ ^ |p] sing 'li h'idng, in the mind.

138. JFi'^A, of (instrumental case) are expressed by the
verb, ta» (also na?i west of Shdnghdi), or no, to bring, pre-
ceding the noun and a verb following it. (m, Jjf tsidng, fG
pa ; in books, ^ 'i), and by the euflax jQ ku, wliich usually
takes a verb between it and the noun.

ffii 7J JJS §!l *^^ *^^ 1^ kweh (koh), cut it with a knife.
^ -j^ >|^ sih tsu* kCi% made of tin.

139. In expressing by (instrumental case), the auxiliary
verb pehjg precedes the instrumental noun, and the princi-
pal verb with or without its regimen follows (m. -gjj pei) : —

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78 THE SHANGHAI DXALEOT.

Wtitl^^^M V^^ 1^ y^ nidng tsah b6% he was reproved
by his parents,

140. Along with is expressed by t'eh iEjJ, t'i ^ and [^J
f6ng. The governed noun is followed by ih dau — * J^ to-
gether. This appendage is sometimes omitted, when (^ is
used.

ib$ 1^ — ?^ ^ t'eh i ih dau k'l*, go with Mm.

# f8 — * rS "i t'i' 'ngu ih dau k'i', g^o tvith me.
fg i^ 1ft 1ft J18 ;S 'ngu t'eh nong tsu*^dng 'yen, I will be
your friend,

141. As a sign of the vocative, the suflSlx pjf ^ is some-
times used. ^ Sm lau h'iung d, brother (addressed to
strangers as a friendly salutation).

142. Case particles in other languages. Prepositions
standing before the noun, and terminations making up one
word with the root, are used together in the classical lan-
guages to express case; and very frequently the suffixes alone.
In the modern European languages, suffixes are much less
used, prepositions performing the office of case particles. In
the Tartar languages, the particles called in other languages
prepositions, come after their words, and are therefore called
postpositions. In Manchu, the oblique eases, four in number,
are formed by suffixes «elected from this class of particles.
When written they are joined to the noun or not at pleasure,
and may all be used independently as particles. Thus it
appears that the Chinese in using separate case particles,
some before and some after, the nouns to which they belong,
do not depart from the practice common to other races.

143. Premare's method of illustrating one by one, the
words most important in a grammatical view, by numerous
examples, is here followed in regard to some commonly used
nouns.

p 'k'eu, mouthy an opening. It is only used in combination.
P ^ 'k'eu yun, speech. p :J; 'k'eu dz€, fluency,
P :§: >& # '^'^^ '22 "sing fi, plausible but not sincere.
H X B& P saw t'so lu* 'k'eu, where three roads meet.
P SM a In '^'^^ ^^^ ^^^* '^% colloquial particles.

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p. II. S. III. EXAMPLES OF SUBSTANTIVES. 79

•^ n i I& ih 'k'eu 't'6 Mh, all he says is in the dialect.
pg P mun 'k'eu, opening: ^ p 'h6 'k'eu, sea-port.
"^ ?t n PS Dzo* p'u* 'k'eu tszS Hdng-cheu bay.
n ^ ^ jSt 'k'eit soh m bing^ loords without foundation.
W .P M >& V^^ 'k'eu m' sing, speaking without thinking ,

mere words.
•^ n f^ ^ it 'k'eu ngau ding^, spoke decisively.

144, ^k'i*, I. Breath, vapour.

ii iJ t'eu k'iS to breathe, j^ ^ «^ k'i^ climate.
Wi ^ s^k 'ki^, moisture. ^ ^ d(>n* k'iS to die.

2. Anger.

^ ^ IS 'z^ k'i' ^^Qg*? pTovoke you.

^ -SM M vet yau' dong^ k'i V do not be angry,.,

M^ ^ k'l* sah 'ngu, provoke me greatly.

3. Manner, expf*essiony meq^ning.

^ ^ ^ P€ yang k'i^ 16 lau, beautifully ornamented.
jjnp ^ ^ ^ zun k'i* w^.n zm, the likeness is perfect.
^ ^ ^ M vet yau k'ak k'i', do not stand on ceremomf.
)hM M^ ^^^ 'y^^ f^t k'f^, has gread; happiness.

145. >j5i sing, hearty mind.

il^it^Jl sing 'Id su' long*, attend to your booh.

i& X ^ & f@ si°g 'li ming bak kuV has an intelligent

mind.
fg i5 ^ JJB k'eu sing wah 'tail, mind set on schemes.
^ >6, ® i5» >J> >5j tong«ing, lieu sing, 'siau sing, pay

attention,
^^M'^ dzing* sing gih lib, do your utmost.
M M >6 S 'li^^g ^^^^ si°'g ^^^ double-minded.
6 ^ i& © i^^^^ ft* "^^^g s^' planning in vain.
^^ >& — il^ ih sing ih niawS all intent upon.
Ht i6 ]i[ St ^ dzub sing dzub tti dzdng, honest, sincere.
)6 i6 i ^ s^^g ®i^g '*®^ ^^^^> resolutely intent on.
# IS iS >6 ^'s^'^ '*^^ *®^°g sing, faithful.
14g, ^ 'sen, /mnc?, an artisan.
' Jl ^ T ^ zong* ^seu 'an 'seu, superior and hiferior

workmen.
® ^ ^ ?§ '^ong 'seu veb tub, may not put hand to it.
-^ it SI jMi 'seu mong kiab \on, confused and wrong.

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80 THE SHANGHAI DIALBOT.

. ^ ^ t'ging 'seu, ivitli his own Jiand^
"^^IIIjS^cT @ih 'seu- na/^ tso^t'ieTi 'au in6h, one

hand cannot cover the eyes of all the world.
I& ^ ^ St P^k 'seu gieu dze, want money without earn-
ing it,
M ^ PO°g 'seu^ assistant. ^ ;^ dzfei* 'seu, from hand
to hand.

147. ^ vun% c?t«fy, divisions,

+ ^ S[ ^ 3^ seh vun' 'li ih vun^, owe tenth,

^ ^> ^ ^ Diing vun*, 'pun vun', duties, .

^ ^ tsuh vun^, an office.

^ ^ :^ >9^ ih sang on vun^, cZo m?/ duty a whole lifetime.

^^ ^ f^ ^^ii' 'su tong ^Qn, as in duty hound.

148. ^ ^eu, head,

Pg IS P§ Bi m deu w 'nau, without order,

SB n W M ^e^ ni* path 'li, about 200 Chinese miles.

M S^ A SK 'ti tau^ niun deu? how many men?

1& Si 'k'i deu, a^ ^Ae beginning.

M^aiMM. ten deu 'zz dau*, it is all reasonable.

J 49. |g ngawj eye, a point, a small hole.

'^ Bl '^ H it nga?^ veh t'so, quite right.

BR B# ;^ M '^g^n tsing veh 'hau, his eyes are bad.

M ^ '^ HS *seh tub ih 'nga?i, only a very little,

BS IS ^ A '^g^n ti m niun, thinks none so good as he.

150. g moh, cjrei

11 @ ^eu moh, chief H g tsaDg' moh, accounts,
W: @ '^g^n moh, eye^. ^fc @ su* moh, numbers,
^ H 115 @ ^a* kwa^i tsih moh, important doctrine.

151. /g 'ti, bottom.

J^ ig nioh 'ti, ewcf of mo7ith, ^ jg niew 'ti, ewcZ of year.
.fZ iS T sz 'ti 'au, secretly.
Jg 11 'ti 'If, a^ ^7ie Jo^^om.

J^ T 1^ iS 'ti 'au 'waTi t'ong, to inform secretly.
is M ^ ft 'ti miew' pei ?2, heart and looks not agreeing.
it ^l) iS dzuk tau' 'ti, to the end.
M J&y kiak 'ti 'au, under the feet.

152. The following substantives combine with the cardi-
nal points to form nouns of place. They are arranged in the

Digitized by

v^oogie

p. II. S. IV. DISTINCTIVE AUXILIARY SUBSTANTIVES. 81

order of their frequency, ?ft, ^ :H » ffi» ift» "t , IS, ifj ^anS
p6»^ baw, mien*, plew, 'sen, ^eu, fong. One or two examples
will suffice to explain this usage.
3K ^ tI > !S ffi t6ng peTi^ baTi, tong miCTi', ow ^/le eastern side.

The combinations with ^ 'li, within^ include two other
words which here appended, Ipj, ^, M, ^, ^, h'idng', sz*,
miewS pie», ^eu,

Thus,*^ IrI, ^ M, 'li h'iang^, 'H mien*, tnsicfe.

Obs. Other words, such as the demonstrative pronouns, and some of the
prepositions form similar combinations, as will be afterwards seen.

Section A. On numeral particles and atixiliary substantives,
153, Under his head, are included the classifying parti-
cles, called by some writers numerals, with weigths and mea-
sures, and any parts not being themselves full appellative
nouns, into which substantives admit of being divided,

Obs. i. The distinctive numeral particles applied to different substantives,
belonging as they do themselves to that class of words, could not be placed
with propriety among or after the adjectives; yet their Syntax is sufficiently
unlike that of the substantive to require them to be placed apart.

Obs. ii. A comprehensive classification of substantives has been presented
to philologists, by Dr. Legge in his " Letters on the rendering of the name God
in Chinese," Hongkong, 1860. Several useful terms are there introduced,
partly from Nordheimer, but a place for the nouns now under discussion is
not provided for except under class (4). The classes into which common
nouns or nouns not proper are there divided, are —

1. '* Appellative or generic nouns, or names of species of individual exis-
tence, e. g. man, mountain, tree, house, garment." Here shape and substance
are both included, and the indefinite article can be prefixed in all cases.

2. "Material nouns, e. g. com, gold, water." Here matter only is em-
braced, while the limitation of form must be supplied by other words, as "a
bushel of com," "a handful of gold," "a cup of water," " a sceptre of iron.*
Nordheimer, Hebrew Grammar, vol. II. 796, invents no name for the former
words in these cases, merely saying that the second limits the first in meaning.
He considers them all concrete nouns.

8. "Collective nouns, or nouns which though singular in form, yet express
a multitude,"

4. "Abstract nouns or namv>s of qualities or modes of existence, abstracted
from the objecfrwith which they are in combination." Numeral particles and
nouns of measure and shape must be placed here, although they are tliereby
associated with a multitude of mental and moral terms, with which they have
little in common. Abstract nouns might form two classes distinguished as
material and moral.

6. "Relative nouns, e. g. father, king." Since the second class material
nouns furnishes the matter of which the words 'bushel,' 'handful,' 'cup,' etc*

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82 THE SHAKGHAI DIALECT.

supply the fonn, perhaps these auxiliary words should be called formal nouns,
and form a sixth class.

154. The classes (1), (2), (5) and pari of (4), are embrac-
ed in the preceding section! The remainder form the subject
of the present. With regard to tlieir use, combined with the
numeral, they cover the ground of the article a, an in the
class, and of the auxiliary words in the second.

Thus, a mountain, — J^ llj ih zu^ sa/i.

Call a man, ^ *^ "^^ A^ kau* ih ku* niun le.

Two measures of rice,n 3^ ^ ni* 'teu 'mi.

A cup of cold water, — ' $^ ?^ ?JC ih Ve?^ 'lang 'sz,
. Obs. In Hebrew no word like of is necessary, e. g. sh^bet (constr.) barzel,
a Keptre of iron, hai, virga fen-ea.

155. The number and the auxiliary word are both necessary
to the idiom, but the latter is sometimes used alone after the
substantive, as noticed in Art. 111. Yet in this case, the
same construction is admissible. Thus we have,

M 1^ M ^ 'liang kan vong kan, two rooms.

M i^ §B3 i^ liang diau kong diau, tioo steel springs,

H ft IS ft sa^ tsdh zeyi tsah, three boats.

156. The distinctive numeral particles, or those employed
with the appellative or generic nouns, here follow.

^ ku' (keu*), of men, fish, cash, dials, collars, and all rela-
tive terms.
^ ^k'u, of pearls.

^ kun (root), of candles, hairs, trees, masts, bamboos.
^ kw6n (pil)e), of flutes, pencils.
P 'k'eu (mouth), of coffins, men (as consumers).
^ k'u, of plants, trees, roots, H $^ 1§ sa?* k'u 2(i*, 3' trees.
^ k'we*, of stones, bricks, dollars.
fj: Men^, of garments, affairs, news, things.
3^ ^eu, of men, of cattle (when reckoned by heads).
]|3 'ting, of sedan chairs, hats, unbrellas, curtains.
^ 'tu, of single flowers.

^ tung, of candles, lights, — j|^ iHC ih tung 'hu, a light.
^ 't'u, of walls, — ^ 31 ih 't'u dziang, a tvall.
^ tiixxi, of snakes, dragons, bridges, ropes, roads.
^ 'p6 (hold in hand), of chairs, knives, fans, wine bowls.

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p. II. S. IV, SIGNIFICANT AUXILIARY SUBSTANTIVES. 83

'j/f^ *pun (root), of books, account books, plays.

gC p'ih, of horsey (^ is more common.)

"gj miew, of mirrors, brass and skin gongs.

Jg fob, of pictures, maps.

^ fong, of letters, — ^ ^ ih fong singS a letter.

jJt vun, of cash, (fg is more common).

^ tsah,. of birds, quadrupeds, tables, temples, hands, feet,

watches, .shoes, clocks, eyes, ears, vessels.
^ 'tsa7^, of lamps,
j^ tsong, of matters, *

^ 'tsong, of matters.
^ tsz, of pencils, branches, stalks,
gg zu^, of houses, mountains, pagodas.
^ zung, of carriages.
JJ y07i, of dollars.
ij^ 2^ang*, of affairs, matters.
]^ Aang^, of things, matters. Also g sing, of things.

Obs. i. The oflBce of these substantive particles is simply indicative. The
reason of their aj:^lication to particular words is custom only, but etymologi-
cal connection is sometimes traceable as in ^ to close ttpy 5M is applied to
men only as a suffix.

Obs. ii. All generic and relative nouns ai*e here included. They are dis-
tinguished in Euglish from material nouns by taking the plural, and admitting
<?, an, before them.

Obs. iii. These words differ frequently, in their application to particular
nouns, from the usage of other parts of the country. A native of Fuh-kien
would laugh to hear ^ tsah, instead of ^% tsz, applied to hands and feet.
In mandarin J^ vi*, is the distinctive particle for fish instead of @ ku*,
which is employed in this dialect.

Obs. iv. Most of these particles are employed in mandarin. They are used
sparingly in the historical novels, because the semi-colloquial, semi-literary
style of those works only occasionally expands into fuU conversatioilal idiom.
When it does so, they are always found.

157, The next class of the auxiliary substantives are such
as are significant, or retain their meaning when translated
into English, giving to their substantives, which are either
material nouns or are construed as such, limitations of form
and quantity.

Obs.' Weights and measures, names of vessels, divisions of books, etc.,
though belonging to the significant auxiliary particles, will be placed separa-
tely (see Art. 158-160).'

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84 THE SHANGHAI DULKCT.

^ kaw, a room of a house, ih ka» vong deu, a room.

P 'k'eu, moutliful of breath, words, rice.

^ kti*, a sentence o/ speech, ih kti seh io6\

^ kCiw, rod of bamboo for fishing, ih kdn diau* kii?i,

5f^ k'u, pluck up a heap o/ grass, jpah ih k'u 't'sau.

^ k'w6% a piece o/'land, meat, silver,

^ 'k'wun (to roll), a faggot of wood.

J^ Jci6h^ play a game at chess, tsoh ih gi6h gi. [thing.

|g 'ngan (eye) /io?e5 m nets, of nails, cash, a ZiVf?e o/any

g taTi* (to carry), a load (/anything, ih tan* meh zz^

9^ *tien, drop of ink, Utile of anything.

?i t'ong, how many kinds of food, 'ki t'ong va^^^

ig tun, Aeop 0/ earth, rubbish.

'^ te, a stage 0/ plays, table 0/ wine, food.

^ ]^eu, bring an end of rope, taw ih deu zung.

^ riau, long piece of iron, wood, s^rm^ 0/ cash.

H ^o^^, piece cut of, of wood, string, etc.

^ 'paw, Aa^ sheet of paper.

fe pau (to wrap) a parcel, bundle o/cottonf sugar.

^ 'p6, handful o/rice, ih 'p6 'mi.

2S P'a*, division of things, kind of men, customs.

^ p'iewS c^ piece 0/ elegant composition, ih p'iew vun ts^ng.

)r p'iew, piece of gold, ih p'iew kiun 'tsz.

7E p'ih, piece of cloth.

It P'fi (to spread), covering 0/ carpets, coverlids,

P^ mun (touch-hole), piece of artillery.

15: 'nieu, saw 'nieu zung, three skeins of string,

:^ fong (square), apiece 0/ cloth, land, ih fong ti bi.

^ fong, a packet of silver, ih fong niung 'tsz,

^ 'seu, ih 'seu ni, handful of earth,

51 tsdng (to extend), sheet of paper.

Uf tsih, knot of bamboo, Joint of finger.

$ t'sew, string 0/* flowers, cash, beads.

^ t'sow, meal of rice,

1^ dzoh (rollers), map on rollers, ih gioh tv6% a picture.

)$ dzih (mat), party at dinner.

3p^ se??/, open 07ie leaf of the door, ih s^n' mun, k'6 k'e.

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p. II. S. IV. SIGNIFICANT AUXILIARY SUBSTANTIVES. 85

J; zong, layers o/^ books, dress.

^ zung, story of pagodas, steps of ladders.

^ dzun*, gust of wind, slioioer of rain.

"^ ih, leaf of grass, flowers, ih ih 't'sau, a blade of grass.

m yon, small cake o/nieat, medicine.

^ lih, seed of corn.

Obs. i. Words expressing kind of, sort of^ such as ^ >^ S tsong yang'
sing, have been placed with those particles that are simply indicative, because
they are applied to nouns complete in their form and organization, e. g. "
Q A- i 'tsong niun, that sm-t of man; ^ M -^ fS ^i' sing zz' 't'i, this sort of
thing. Having a significance of their own, they should also be mentioned here,

Obs. ii. Material nouns often in Enghsh become generic, assuming the
plural termination, and when singular the indefinite article, e. g. earth, stone,
etc. In Chinese, if we wish to speak of a stone, the aflSx ^ must be used,
and ^ prefixed. Some words need only the auxiliary prefix, e. g. "^ ^ JSi
ih k'we* m^, a piece of coal.

Obs. iii. Some auxiliaries as x% are found both in the significant and sim-
ply indicative class; a circumstance which suggests that all the particles in the
former table had a meaning of their own originally, though now in some in-
stances not to be traced.

Obs. iv. A few verbs are found among these words, viz. jC, ^, ^5 ^^
5^, M^ they afe here to be construed as substantives. In English, verbs
construed as nouns are very numerous, e. g. held, handle, touch, walk, roll,

Obs. V. The examples given in the table, are sufiicient to shew that for this
class of nouns English usage is similar, except that the particle of must be in-
serted. It is different with the words of the former table, for which there is
no equivalent idiom in English. These two kinds of auxiliaries should there"
fore be keep distinct.

158, The definite subdivisions of material nouns will now
be noticed. It is not only the numeral particles and the other
auxiliaries, as registered in the two preceding articles, that in-
tervene between numbers and their substantives. Many
nouns are divisible into several parts, which have appropriate
names and may be used as the words of the preceding table.
The most useful names of divisions are here given, and first
those of books and characters.

Divisions of books. Strokes of characters.

^ kuS sentence. |,^ 'tien \

m tsih, verse. $lj wah ~

'^ tk^, column, ^ 'zu |

fj Ziong, colmm. gij t'iuh \

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86 THE SHANGHAI DlALEOT.

51 tsang, ?ea/, fgjj^ p'ih /

g j^ih, a leaf, \% nah 'X

% tsang, section. ^ t'iau y

# 'seu, ode, ^ fah J

^ p'ie?^, chapter.

;$: 'pun, volume. ^ k'io^i, sma?Z ciVcZe, Q

Obs, These words do not take any numeral particle. Thus in giving direc-
i ons to a scholar to write the character ^ 'zeu, a teacher would say —^ ^,
*-^ ^5 la r 3C ^ ih P'ih, sa« tie^z, mau' Vu 'ti yeu' zz'. The eight
strokes given above are all contained in the character ^C- Information on
this subject is given in Dr. Bj-idgman's Chinese Chrestomathy and other works.

159, The most common names of vessels of capacity are
the followino:.

J% we?i, hoiol ^ peTi, tray,

M tsa/i, ib. j(^ 'tong, bucket.

S P'^^j « plcite. g /iah, cas/ce^,

fen kong, large jar. || siang, c/icsjJ.

^ 2^ang*, intclier. ;^ law,, i^s/^eif, .

%i i^ing, bottle, jar. ^ 'lieu, smaZ^ liamj>er. '

Obs. These words are used as the auxiliary particles of that which is con-
tained in Uiem. But if they are construed as independent substantives they
all take ft as their distinctive particle. Thus we find, — % \% — f^ ^,
ih tsah w6«, a ctip ; ih w6n dzo', a cup of tea,

160, Of definite measures, the following are in common
use.

Land and Long Measure. Dry Measure. '
M Men, 240 square pu', :^ 6'dh, 10 tcu,
tt dza^S 90 7e ^. ^eu, 10 sung,

S 'li, 360 p(i\ ^f. sung, a pint.

^ i^uS Mfeet, ^ keh, ^ew^A o/ a pint.

^ zangS ^eTz/ecj?. ^p t'sau, lOO^A o/ /;eA.

Jl t'sah Joot (14Eng. in. taylor's ft, lO^in. carpenter's ft)
•if t'sunS tenth of a foot,
^ fun, te7ith of a fsun\

Weights.
fH tayi% ^ecw?. ^^ koh, 10 cents.

JX kiun, ca^ify. ^ fun, 1 ccf^.

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p. II. S. IV, COLLECTIVE AUXILIARY SUBSTANTIVES. 87

M 'liang, tad. ^ h^u, tenth of fun.

^ dzien, mace. jg li, tenth of hau.

Measures of time.

f^ d6', generation. 'tiew, hoi(.r (with If).

IS sz', ;j, ^Ij k'uh, J hour.

i^ nle7^, j/ear. ^ fun, minute.

^ sQe^, i&. \i^ miau, second.

H nyih, c^a^/. ^ h'ih, instant.

Obs. fl$ zz, A(w<r, and ^ nidh, month, are here omitted, because they usu-
ally take @ before them. This must be to distinguish them from word^
similar in sound, or from their own other senses.

161. Collective auxiliary nouns varying through all the
forms of plurality, from a pair to a multitude, here follow: —

^ ku^ sentence of words.

1$ lien pair of corresponding sentence* of poetry.

^ song, pair of shoes. . [fowls.

fj* te*, opposite pair of candles, geese, ih de* ki, pair of

55! 'ku, 2 or 3 in trade; sa?^ 'ku k'e, divide between three.

^ />a, a pile or T^aft of timber, roiu of trees.

|5|g ^e*, a rank, of soldiers, ih d6 ping.

Ip,^ Vih J parcel often pencils, "ih t'ih pih.

7J tau, 100 sheets of paper, ih tau 'tsz.

Jf tsu, hundle o/* incense, ih tsQ h'idng.

3g t'au', cov^rful of books, ih t'au*, stl.

$ t's^Ti, chain of 1,000 cash.

5 A;iun,/oc7ij o/ birds, beasts, ih gitin Hiau,

gl] fu*, suit of clothes, ih fu^ i zong.

^ Aong, rows of birds flying, trees,

162. From the list here given, it appears that there are
at least 130 of these imperfect substantives, almost all in
common use. -They admit of a fourfold division.

I. Of the first kind, whose office is simply indicative of
appellative nouns, or distinctive to some extent of classes,
there are upwards of 30. A few examples are appended.

— P ;[§ ;^ ih 'Feu kw67i ze, a coffin.

jg — ^ ;^ 'zau ih diau giau, build a bridge.

^5 — ;^ If sah ih ts^h ki, hill a fowl.

--» ;jj ^ ^ ifi tsz du* pih, a large pencil.

Digitized by

Google

88 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Obs. i. At first sight, these woi:ds look like a capricious superfluity of ar-
ticles, arising merely from a fondDess for multiplying words. They appear
appropriate in a language, where there is so much arbitrary classification, and
so little exhibition of the power of generalizing by means of deep and com-
prehensive principles. Here are thirty words made use of, where one would
be sufficient. It should however be remembered, that when used as adverbs'
there is great clearness given to the conception they express, and that they
diminish the confusion that arises from similarities of sound.

Obs. ii. When an adjective is used, it comes between the particle and the
noun, as in the last example. This is also true of the other particles that are
the subject of this chapter.

II. Of the significant particles, or those that are applied
to material nouns, and define quantity and form, apart from
number, there are about 40. E. g.

-^ 51 St IS ih tsang Hsz deu, a sheet of paper.

— + &?)£ nl^ seh taTi* ni, tioenty loads of eartlu
iL ^ ^ 'kieu zung V^\^jpagoda of nine stories,

Obs. i. • When they become parts of compound appellative nouns, one of the
distinctive particles precedes.

— ^ "E JL, ih ku* mieri' 'k'ong, one face,

— ^ Ijf ii^ ih ts^h tsih deu, one finger,

Obs. ii. H^j ^ tie«, ngaw, are applied to any material noun in the sense
of a little of, Ih "~^ precedes them.

III. The subdivisions or definite parts of material nouns,
form the most numerous class of the auxiliary substantives.
Upwards of 50 are here collected. They take no particle af-
ter the number preceding, and must therefore be classed as
imperfect substantives. Thus the construction in the follow-
ing examples is similar.

(III.) ^^ Jf ^ ih kiun hwo, pound of cotton,
(II.) — '^ ?E ^^ P^^^ \vn6, bundle of cotton,
(II.) *— f 4 Tit ih lih 'mi, a grain of rice.
(III.) — =(. ^ ih 'teu 'mi, a peck of rice.

IV. Collectives compose the remaining, and smallest class
of qualifying particles applied to substantives. The use of
words in the four classes of particles may be seen in the fol-
lowing examples,

-^ ^ ^ ih tsah yang, a sheep.

•^ Ji ^ ^ ill i^'w^ 2/^og nioh, a piece 9f mutton.

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p. II. S. V. ON ADJECTIVES. 89

~ Jf ^ ft 1^ ^^^^ y^^S ^i^b, catty of mutton.
^- § ^ ih gitin y^ng, flock of sheep.

163. Another small class of auxiliary substantives, con-
sists of those that are used with verbs, expressinglike our
word times, the number of times the action has been per-
formed. They are ?^, ^, fej, ||, |B; their use will be under-
stood by examples.

Jjj jg ^ ^ le ku* 'li^ng t'sz*, / Iiave come tivice,

^ ;^ — 1^ k'V tsz ih t'ong, having gone once.

^ ^ M [^ yau* doh 'liang w6^, you must read it twice.

^M ^ M ^ 'tseu 'liang 'ts^n dzieu^ ding% after going

round twice he stops,
J;]* 2. ^" IB 'tdng san seh ki% received 30 blows.
Section 5, On the Adjective, ^ 1^ ^,

164. The native writer before alluded to says, the office
of adjectives is *'to describe the attributes and appearance of
things." **In apposition with nouns, they express their
qualities," (|| It ^ ^ Jp, JK ?^ ^ « f in jSl ^0 ^'Some
adjectives consist of two wotds which are inseparable. Thus,
repetition of the initial, the rhyme, and the whole character,
frequently occurs." (W M ^ f!f :^ H «, in ffi S, # t|,
4 ^ ^ ||.) ** There are not more than a few tens of cha-
racters that are adjectives."

Antithesis, 165. In substantives, the principle of cofn-
bination came prominently to view, and it will be found to
belong though not so extensively, to the other parts of speech.
That of antithesis belongs especially to adjectives. Most of
the single-worded adjectives in^daily use will illustrate this.

j^ ^ k'iung, 'dzong, light, heavy,

)f^ >J\ tii% 'siau, greatj little,

^ )J^ tu, 'sau, many^feio.

^ ^ dzang, 'tOTi, long^ short.

M- ?if 'Aeu, ^6h, thickj thin,

^ DiJ k'weh, Aah^ broad, narrow^

"i^ ^ kau, ti, high, low,

gj \^ sun, 't'sie?i, deep, shallow.

P^ ^ '/ang, ^non^ cold^ ivarm^

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90 THE SHANGHAI BULIOT.

fff f5 t'sing, dz6h, cleat*, muddy,

^ ift k'wd*, man*, quick^^alow.

if ^ (c) 'hau, k'ieu, good, bad (k'ieu=7? 't6).

^ i8 ^a^S ni6ng, j:)a7e, deep.

^ % 'tsau, a»^, car/y, late,

R fC ng&^gS 'nion, hardj soft.

A tt k'i6h, dzuh, crooked^ straight.

jE ^^ tsung*, «i£, Wg/e^, 6eri^.

JH M tsong*, 8eu*,/a^, ?ca».

^ ^ sdng, z6h, ripe, unripe.

M M sowg, 'kiun, Zoo^e, tight.

H iM *'8u> s^S coarse, fine,

^ H sing, 'Aieu, new, old.

M SB (c) h'i, 'mdng,/eM;, croxoded (mang=jg^ mih),

Jt 5S (c) k^S gistng, dear, cheap (gidng= ^ dzie/?).

A IS tsiin, 'kd, true, false.

^ Pg Mng*, en', %/^f, darlc.

Obs. i. Those words only that are marked (c) are not used in literary com-
positions. There is no class of words more extensively spread through all
Chinese, spoken and written, than the majority of these adjectives.

Obs. ii. Antithetical substantives of one character each, are rare in the
colloquial. See 107. Obs. iii.

Obs. iii. In Premare's list of antithetical characters, more than fifty of 117
are adjectives. Many also of those that belong to other parts of speech, have
the antithesis less strongly marked.

Obs. if. Many abstract substantives are formed by the union of these an-
tithetical adjectives, in the order in which they stand above; e. g. Koto long?
*ki hau' dzang 'd6« 1 to say nothing about speed, veh 'kong k'wa maw* v. Syn-
tax. Part III. ^ 2.

166. Sometimes in the antithesis, one member is a single,
and the other a double fonn,

^ iid, capable. PS ffi ^ y^ng', useless.

IH, \6n% disturbed. ^ ^ t'a' bing, peaceful.

167. Other words having no obvious antithesis form il by
assuming the sign of the negative. *

^ ifk ^tk v^l^ zi&ng* 'ngii nung, not like me.
^ 'W M ^^^ 'k'ung tsQ*, not willing to do it.
^ ffi ^ veh bien' tong*, not convenient.

Obs. The negative here just corresponds to our English prefix un, e. g.
unlike, tmioilling.

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P, II. S, V. ABJBOTIVBS, BXAMPLBS OF COMBINATION. 91

Combination. 168. Many adjectives are formed by the
apposition in a fixed order, of two adjectives, and in these
compounds many book words occur. *

JPf ^ t'sing 'song, clean J^ j^ ts6ng ^eUy faithful.

fjg f§ la» dt% lazy. ^ ^ k^ien h.% humble.

^ ^ kdn zing*, clean. jg |g va» nari, difficult.

^ 0^ t'song ming, clever. ^ >1? sti 'sau, /et^;.

^ ]g mau Vsau, rough. |^ ^ 'h'ti tfi, many.,^ /^ ^ ^

?^ 1$ Idng 'zing, solitary. ^ jH^ sing siew, new.

ffl. ^ *'su su, coarse. ^ ^ ng6 bun% stupid.

^ ^ iiong 'k'u, poor. ^ |ft h'iung 'hun, /erce,

Obs. The antithesis that occurs in examples of this sort is sufficiently in-
dicated by the sense.

169. In addition to compounds such as those already
given, formed by two adjectives, substantives and verbs make
part of many.

ij\ §§ 'siau {small) k*I*, (vessel), parsimonious.

^ ^ sih bdh, snow-white.

j^ ^ Vieu (thick) dau* (doctrine), liberal.

^ M. ^^^ (y^^^O li^ogS (capacity)^ generous.

M ?8 '^'^^ (^^ ^^^) ^^^ (thin), exacting.

^ Jit niung' tsun, diligent.

JjJ 55 au* (^0 6enc?) gi&ng, unyielding.

^ ^ t^6ri (finish) zlen, complete (r. dzie?i.)

^ Pi9 k'i' (anger) mun' (sad), secretly sad.

^ ^ kau (wish) h'iung* (ready for), tvilling.

U j^ na.n (hard) ku* (to pass), painful, sad.

JJg ;^ 'ta7i (Kver) du* (great), bold.

m ^ t'seh' (outside) k*^h (visitor), handsome.

jtf ^ 'hau (good) siau* (laugh), ridiculous.

Obs. There are also triple forms, in which other parts of speech enter, e. g.
S jt lit Pi^ lih dzuh, straight m a wall; B$ Vm IB t-ih lieu' yon, very round.
In these examples, the adjective which stands last is qualified by the preced-
ing words.

170. Some adjectives of two words are exclusively local
in their use, and present no etymology in their characters,
being written phonetically. They are always inseparable.

If jt sa du, tired. ^ ^ au sau^, active, sharp.

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92 THB SHANGHAI DIALECT.

II IS ok t'soh, dirty. ^ |$ keh dah, blind to reason.

@ @ iveh lun, entire. ft ^ h'i& tsfi, skillful.

:g J^J koh lih, clean. i^ q| ling I6ng, intelligent, yu

171. Combinations of three are also numerous, in which
the first word contains the principal meaning. The second
is repeated, and as will be seen in the examples, sometimes
conveys only sound. The phonetic formation of the char-
il&ters will usually serve to indicate this,

^ ^ ^ p. hah tah tah, irregular.

gS ^ ^ P. ngdng* bang bang, hard and stiff.

^ Wt Wl '°i^ tsz tsz, soft,

jif ^ ^ p. trah t'ah t'ah, slippery,

^ PH |q| 'nau z4ng zing, noisy ^ humming.

^ H g mau ts'i ts'f , rough.

^ ^ ^ P. 'non d6ng dong, warm.

W. i^ i^ dzuh diau diau, straight.

^ j^ kk '<J t'sQ t'su, dwarfish.

^ /^ 1^ 'tow 2^eu yeu, „

6 # 5 pak sih sih, snow-white.

H ig fg p. huk t'ah t'ah, Hack.

Obs. i. In examples not marked p. the repeated word has an independent
sense, in agreement with that of the leading word, and is so used in the books.

Obs. ii. These phonetic appendages, destitute of any significance of their
own, are interesting to the comparative etymologist as corresponding to ad-
jectival terminations in other languages.

172. Combined forms offourvords, (5ften consisting of
adjectives and either substantives or verbs, and still more
frequently of double adjectives repeated are, such as follow.

jE ::^ 36 W tsung* d^* kwong ming, upright and wise.

%^L 'h,^ k'wen ong du^ li^n^% generous.

^ ^ W i^ 'tsing 'tsing 'yexi diaii, very regular.,

I& "^ "6* t$ ^'^ g^ '^^ kwaS extraordinary.

^ ^ ^ ^ dzdng dzdng 'yon 'yon^ long in time.

'M ^ \&i& ^^^ ^^^ *^ *^> irregular in height.

\t^^i§. ^^°g ^^^S loh l6h, busy,

JiS JJS :^ :^ '^^^ '*^^ ^^* ^^^9 boldly.

Obs, The monosyllabic adjectives are not repeated. These double forms
when repeated, are also correctly translated as adverbs in almost all cases. It

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p. II. S. V, ADJECTIVES FOBMED FBOM KOUKS & VERBS. 93

will be seen in subsequent sections, that repetition is used most extensively
among verbs and adverbs.

173. The place of the adjective is before its noun if they
go into combination, but with the substantive verb as copula
or an equivalent, it may become a supplementary member of
the sentence,

jtf A '^^^ niun, good man.

A & ^ j@ ^i^^ 'zz 'hau ku*, the man is good.

6 M P^^ dong, tahite sugar, ^ Hi t'sing 'sz, dear water,

K M k'wa' 'mo, swift horse, T^ |S 'lang va/i^ cold rice,

^ § ^ieu^ su, old books.

M ^ "^ ^ '^^ '^^^ ^^^^ kV^*, yet the horse goes slowly.

7K i^ ^ i^ 1H 'sz t'sing 'zz t'sing ku% the water is clear.

174. Substantives become adjectives to other substantives,
if placed before them in combination,

p^ J] jkngidMy foreign knife, ^ ^ zah lu^, stone road,
^ il5 ^ieu 'na, buffalo milk. ^ |g 'he z6w, sea Junk,

Obs. Compounds of this kind have come under notice before, Art. 106.
Thus it appears that cases occur which prevent the accurate defining of the
parts of speech. For the words standing first in these examples, while they
may well be cls^imed as adjectives, according to the grammar of the classical
languages, are unquestionably substantives when alone. As roots they are
substantives. It is by position that they are changed into adjectives. For
corresponding examples in English, see Art. 119.

175. Verbs with the particle \^ or ^ ^@, become adjec-
tives to the following noun.

Mit^%^ tsong* 'la ku* 'dau, the sown rice,

^ ^ A ^ 'si ku* niun tu, those that die are many.

^ ^ 'i'^ >J^ H ^* '^^ ^^^ 's^^^ ^^^> ^ ^^^^ child.
Jg ^ ^ y toeh ku* meh zz% liviiig thing.

Obs. i. In examples like the second of these, the sense is also complete
without the noun as 'si ku' tu. We have in English a darkened room, a beloved -
child. Participles are here construed as adjectives, a usage similar to the
Chinese.

Obs. ii. Some verbs enter into combination as adjectives, without the inter-
vention of any particle. 5E A 'si niun, dead man; ^ -f h'iau"tsz, /^tW
son; ^ !5C h'iau* ^nu, Jilial daughter,

176. A few adjectives are also employed as transitive verbs.
The second and fourth of the following sentences are exam-
ples. In the 1st and 3rd, the same words are adjectives.

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94 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

^1St^& '^'i liwe;^ tuh giuh, exceedingly glad,
^ ^Wi yK ^1®^ '^'^ h.w6n 'sz, buffaloes are fond of taater^
'^^\^\i k'd' k'a^ tveh. toeh, very glad.
^ IJJ ^ Jg ^g i tsong k'a' weh. nong*, he toill certainly he
pleased with you.
Comparison of adjectives. 177. The comparative is ex-
pressed in several ways, as by —
a. H ts6*, againy wliich precedes the adjective it qualifies.
^ IB S ^ veh nuag tse^ 'sau, / cannot say less.
M- ^ ^ ^ tse* dii' m meh, there are none larger.
S SS W S ^se^ gi^ng 'yen \^? have you any cheaper?
&. 1^ 'tien, a little, follows the word that it* qualifies.
H ^ S ftT" |j!f ^1^ 'P^^ s^ '1^^^ 'tien, this book is better.
^Ik it 1^'^^^' '^^^^ 'tseu, ivalk a little faster.
^ li^ 5j5 ^ tu 'Hen meh 'tse, say a little more.

c. *— Bg ih 'ngaT^, a Uttle, is similar in use to the last.
IS li-f "^ IS '^^^ 'bau ih 'nga?^, this is however some-

thing better.
^ ;^ — ^ kau du* ih 'nga^i, let it be better and more.

d. jg toanf still J further; this word combined with ^
yau^j to want,. mokes the adjetcive that follows comparative.

fSi^iJ- wdin yau' 'hau, 1 want better yet.
X J^ jS ^ IB kung fu wm yau* si^, / want the work
finer.

e. ^t 'pf, compare; this word makes the adjective that
follows comparative. When ^ is in the negative form, the
adjective may be omitted.

Jt i^ :^ Jt ]^ ffl Zong^ 'he veh 'pi Su tseu, Shanghai

cannot be compared to Sii-cheu,
Jt^Mif 'P^ '^g^ ^^'^^ '^^^^5 ^^^ ^^ better than I.
itm^ 'pi 'ngu 'hau, do.

^ ^ J^^i^ veh sxXn ^pi 'ngii 'hau, he is not to be
* thought bettef fhati /,
/. H kung^, better. Sometimes jj^l k^, to add, follows it.
^ ^ 15 i? ^^^ J^'^* kung* 'hau, not to go tvould be better.
H in ^ IS" kung* k^ veh te*, still more wrong.
H ilfD ^ M kui%* k^ m 2/ung*, much more useless.

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p. II. S. V. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 95

g. iH yoli repeated. The use of this particle repeated is
to place the two members of a sentence in strong antithesis;
sometimes ^ fah, to express follows it.

^

^ 2/oh ta 2/oh 'hau, the more the letter.

MWlMM^I^^^ 2/0I1 fah giong 2/oh fah yau* sang
bingS the poorer men are, the more liable they
are to stchiess.

yoh fah yau' 'h'i hw6?^, the more you understand
it, the better you loill be pleaded with it
7i. % V, again, is a very common form, Jfc 'pi, often
commences the sentence.

^ ^ A X i? ^i* ku* niun V 'hau^ this man is better.
^ ]^ 5(, ^ loh 'ii V tu, it rains still more,
i. X in ^' ba, still more is often preceded by ^^ 'pi.

Jt f^ 31 iP ^ 6 'P^ '^S^ ^' ^^ ^^"S ^^'^y ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^
intelligent than /,
it. JP, Wi, 15: ^ ka or tiCTi, add or fong^ duS increase.
iP # fk It ft '^^ ^ ^'^^ '^an liang% greio more coura-
geous,
^ "^MiM ^ 1^1^^ *sau f6ng ka du% the wind is higher

to-day.
fi "?i S jK :^ ^^^ '^^^ y^^* ^^°S^ ^'^^^ ma/ije the shoes

larger.
® ^ ^ 'i5S IS ^png dier^ yau* t'ie» 'tiew, you must give

mo7^e money.
I. The comparison is intensified by adding ^ ^ t^ih tu
after the adjective.

B^ Si^ # ^ ^ zoh nyih 'hau tuh tu 'tse, yesterday

he was much better.
H ;R It IS ^t # ^ ;S ^1^ ^ ^^' ^^^ tsoh-deu 'pi i kun
dzang tuh tu, this bamboo is much larger than
that.
M Zl ft il M # ^ ^^' ni' tsah ki dzong* ^iih td, the
second fowl is much heavier,
m. Beside the formation of the comparative by particles, it
is expressed by the positive standing first, when the difierence
of the compared objects is mentioned.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

96 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

]5 7^ -ij* kau 16k t'sun*, taller by six inches.

Obs, i. The verb Jfc is however in examples of this last kind, understood
as going before, and is often expressed, as in ^ £ |pf >u 1f £ ^ *-^
fi iV tsah z6w 'pi i tsah k'weh ni* ts'ali, this boat is two feet wider than that,
12 is IS ^ Jt Itr H ^if^^^ 'ngu niang ku' bing' 'pi zie«
njih 'tsz 'ban tub tu 'tse, wy motJier w much better tlutn tlie day before yesterday.

Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given. 1.
Substantive particles which follow the adjective they qualify, and imply a
slight variation only. This variation may be increase or diminution, accord-
ing to the sense of the adjective comparisd. 2. Verbs. Of these, the verb
^ compare is in constant use. It is found with other particles, or without
any particle, and retails its syntax as a verb, unaffected by its use as an au-
xiliary in the comparison of adjectives. The other verbs employed express
addition. Their opposites are used in a similar manner ; e. g. f K ^ ^^^^
*8au, \^ JK 'ka« t'eh, subtract. 3. Conjunctions and adverbs form the re-
mainder of the particles employed in comparison. They imply a difference
without specifying whether it be greater or less, so that they correspond more
nearly to the English suffix er, than to the particle more. The repeated form
j©> j^ just answer*} to the particle /A^, in "the sooner the better." Such
English forms as this are usually regarded as elliptical, and in explaining
them, words supposed to be omitted are supplied, in the corresponding Chi-
nese phrases, there is no .ground for the hypothesis, of an ellipsis.

178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place
of a superlative. The first three are placed before the adjec-
tive they qualify. The rest follow their word.

a. ]J 'ting, Mghestj top. [bright star.
3^ ® >& IH ^ *'i®^ ^^°g s^^S '^^"S lining*, Sir{us is a very
IH 5S ^ 'ting giang 'ts6, at the loivest price.

^ ^ A ]g 03 6 ^ ku* niun 'ting ming b^h, that oiian is

very intelligent,
IH IJ^ IH ^ 'ting dii' 'ting tu, very great, very many.

b. ^ tsue*, exceedingly, the most.

^ j^ ^ 5f j ^ 'lau 'hu 'tsue* li' €', the tiger is very fierce.
^ 4 'ir i E H S JT- S'tiau'niautongtsong, vongt^ong'

tsue' 'hau-k'oTiS ci'^^ong birds, the phoenix is the

most beautifid.
5c*fl^ + AftJ^5i ^'i^^^ ^^* *^"g *s^^Sj i^i^n *sue^ ling
• long, of all things in heaven and earth, man is

the most intelligent.^

c. ;gg 7du)i, extremely; this particle is used before or after
the adjective which it qualifies.

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p. II. S. V. ADJECTIVES. THE SUPERLATIVK. 97

flS 09 # >S t'song ming tuh giuh, extremely intelligent.
#i S? M ^^^^^ sun au*, extremely profound.
W 3!lC*3 '^ @ 'y^^i vun'li twkigmh, very beautifully written.
^ It ^^ ® S2 ^^^ ^^1^ gi^l^ extremely polite and elegant.

d. ^ '«/a, wild^ great; this word requires one of tlie auxi-
liary verbs J^ or f^ before it.

31 ?i 11 5j| f# S^ JFong-p'u* 'li 'hie;^ tuh 'yt, the Hiodng-

' p'u is very dangerous.
3^ K 2^ If i4 t'ieTj kau \6''y^ 'la, heaven is very high.

e. 5E 'si, to die; this word takes the auxih'ary verb ^
between it and its adjective.

:?l^ fir *W fi: J$S 5E '^^ ^^^°g zing kti^ 1^ 'si, the price of rice

is very high.
^ ^ S"f 3fS 5E nie?i sz* 'hau le 'si, it is a very good year.
^ ^ Bi :h^ y^ kiun tsau fong du' le 'si, to-day the wind
is very high.

/. P|^ ^ wz tsu*, there is nothing that can he done; this
form of expression also requires JjS le.
Mi :h^^^M ^^"g ^^' 1^' ^^ ^siV, the tvind is very high.
B Si K 3J5 Pjl M nyih deu j/ong* le m tsu*, /7ie st*/^ is very
bright. \^profound.

^ P3 ^ J}S PU #{ hoh. vun^ sunle mW\^^his learning is very

g. ^ sah, ver?/. lit. a tivifiJcling. (Premare has this parti-
cle, though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer ^
*sah, Jcill.) ,

55^ ^ ^ Znang dau* tu sah, the robbers are very many.
^ ® if^ veh k'iung sah, not very light.

^^* Si "^ ^6U ih, the first in importance.
5M •^ ^ M ^^^ ^ y^^' 'kiun, the most important.
S^ ^ # Si -" kiung^ 'vu 'mu deu \h^ filial piety is most im-
portant.

^' 'T ^ ^ '1^^^ ^^^^ *^^> remarhably^ exceedingly.
J^ 2|J T ^ ?§ '^^^ 1^ '^^^^ ^^1^ ^^^1^3 exceedingly good.

J* 1 K^ f# '^i*^^ fan veh tifti, i6. {heavy.

& ^ 7 JK ^ ^ 'dzong 1^ 'liau fa/j veh tuh, extremely

* That ^ sah is the word seemg probable because 'si, die^ a word like it in
meaning is much used in a similar manner. 4

Digitized by LjOOQIC

98 THE SHANGHAI 1 1 VLfiCT.

^. Uf :^ ^ w6< veh tub, or fj ^ ^ ro6' vehl6, vei^y, un-
speakable. ^ 7 ♦ v^b 'li^^i zz% endlessly.
ifc 3^ flf ^ H ^'V le w;6' veh tuh. unspeakably greaii.
IS ^ ^ iB =S IS w'o* veh le ku* 'k'd 'nau, unspeakably
wretched, ^

7. ^ ^ ^ tuh li* ^*, severe^ dangerous,
S ^ f!l § 'dz6Dg tuh li' 6*5 exceedingly heavy,

Obs. i. Amons^ the words admitted here are many forms of expression
equivalent to our qualifying adverbs very, extretnHy, etc. In actual usa^e no
distinct line is kept between the adjectival and adverbial sense ; e. g. ^ J^
tsue' 'hau, may mean beat, or very good. It seemed therefore preferable to give
in one view, the more common forms for framing an absolute or modified su-
perlative. Most of these particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be
shown. They are therefore true adverbs.

Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the superlative.
I. By particles appropriated to this use §, J^, §, tsue', 'ting, ^iuh. The
two former stand before the adjective, the third is found both before and after
its word. 2. The ordinal §| — • texx ih, in mandarin ^ ""^ tV ih, the Jint,
also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative. 8. Auxiliary verbal
particles f§, ^, tuh, 16, with the appendages ^, :^, ^ §, 'ya, A-iuh
and li' €\ to the former, and ^, 3E, ?§- qjft. 'yd, 'si and m tsu', to the •
latter, form a third class. 4. The forms T ^ f^ 'liau veh tuh or 'liau
fan veh tuh, wonderful, very, pft ^ ff* «^* veh tuh (IQj unspeakable, and ^
4 * veh 'liau zz', endlessly, when appended to an- adjective with JJS inter-
vening, also convey a superlative sense.

Obs iii. The verb ^ whi, Jinish, is also applied to adjectives with the
same force as the preceding intensitive particles. S 3^ fR 7C S *^' 1^
zl&ng' whn 'ts^, painted extremely like; ^ |^ ^ ^ yong mau' trong wen^
countenance very sallow.

Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an ai^ ective by the phrases
+ ^ «eh fun, ten parts, and 'J* ^ ^ aeh ni' fun, twelve parts ; ^ ^
"T* ^ ?■?" ^®^ 2z' zeh fun 'hau, the thing is thoroughly good.

179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal
numbers, when on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty
place in the sentence for a particle. \inonth.

-^ ]|5 ;g: — kiun tsau nia?i* ih, to day is the 21st of the
M S ^ ^ 2/a?i fong ni' nie^i, the 2nd year of Hien-fung.

Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page 61), a few
examples only need to be added 5» 't" -^ 'ng zeh saw, fifty three ; tL 'T
J^ 'kieu zeh ni', ninety two. From a hundred to a hundred and ten, ^ ling
is inserted. — ' W ^ E9 ib pah ling sz', a hundred and four. Instead of
saying -^"0 3 '^"ih pah saw sehjitismorefrequenttooraify seh. Thus,
ih pah saw, a hundred and ihirty, and so for other numbers. The omission of

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. V. OKDINAL NUMBERS. . 99

— * ih, one, sometimes occurs *§ /\, pak pah, a hundred and eighty; one thou-
sand four hundred is "f* fS t'siew sz'; fourteen thousand is ^ ^ maw' sz'.

180. Days of the month take |JJ ts'u before them as a?
numeral particle, but it is omitted when the number consists
of two characters. Ordinal numbers are regularly formed by
prefixing ^ ^i' to the cardinal numbers,

IE M W '^ tsung^ nioh t'su ih, the 1st day of the 1st month.
^J^ MVll^ ming tsau t'su 'ki, what day of the month is to-

mo7^row. [row is the fr St.

^ B IZf "^ ^ ''*e^ i^yili t'su ih 'tse, the day after to-mor-
^ -Uc SI '^ W 2 'k'au h'ih ^i^ ih pah ming, he has passed

the examination as tlie one hundr^edth.
H H + ^ ^i' sari seh 'pun, the thirtieth volume.
:S 1i M M f@ Si -5^ 'zz DLong* tV 'ki ku* ni 'tsz ? tohieh son

are you ?
SP fr H M J^^ J^^^S <ii' 'ki? which are you in order.
Obs. First is translated by B^ "^ ten ih.

181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means
of ^ p6', times; ^ Jp ^ ya^u* k4 be', make it twice as
large; iB ^ E9 'JS ka dzaog sz' be% make it four times as
long,

182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of
fg tu', or any other auxiliary substantive particles.

— ^ — ^ ih ku* ih ku*, one by one or one after another.

M ^ M ^ 'liang ku* 'liang ku^ tioo and two.

•^ U '^ fr il^ ^^^^S i^ '^^^o* ^<^^ ^y '^otv.

— - ^ — ^ ih diau ih diau, in successive lengths.

183. Indefinite numbers are expressed by *§" pah, 100;
^ t'siew, 1,000; ^ mm', 10,000, with or without Iftlun.
I& ^ I& H ^^"i^ t'sieTi lun mari^, thousands and myriads.
M IS ^ ^^ ^ ^^^* pab yang* meh zz% all things.

I& •f' ^ ^ lun t'sie?i le 'tse, many thousands are come.
jSt jSC W '^ ^un '^u ¥^^ kwen, all officers civil and military.
"^ ^ "& ^ ^^ 1 P^b bing', can cure all diseases.
"0 ?E ^ P^^ h^^ ^^^S nyibj the flowers' birth^day.
^ S ^ if'H va?i^ koh 'kieu tseu, all countries.

184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.
H )& M ^ sa?i sing 'liang i', vacillating in opinion.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

100 THE SHANGHAI DULECT.

H ♦! iL |el H saw 'tsen 'kieu w6 deu, constantly turning
hack.

'fc fli A S t'sih wkng pah 'zO, lying in all directions.

H f^ IS san sun sz^ soh, timidly advancing and retreat-
ing.

^ ^ ^ A hah t'sih hah pah, all in confusion.

Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages,
examples similar to these are not wanting; e. g. at sixes and sevens.

185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use
and varied in their meaning, are here appended.

— ih, one, whole, immediately upon.

jg *— |t j;;^ toh ih vu rh*, there is only one.

— -gl U U ih t'sih seh w6\ all he said.

^^ 1^ 5^ T it H'ong t'ie» 'au, the whole empire.
•— "§* gE m ih fe^i ki* t'seh, the words have been said.
^^ &yf ^ ih'ding* peh yuh, certainly unchangeable.
— ^'f: [bJ U ih niaw* w6 deu, sincerely repent.
^^ JS "^ S5f ill ^^ti ih 'd6ng, all he do'^s.
^- f J ®t Jj* ih 'dong dzieu* 'tdng, at the least thing^ he

fights.
'^ itWLWi^^ 't^seu dzieu^ ^ih, the moment he begins to
tcallCf he falls.

186. ^ dzieTi, complete f all.

^ ^ ^ veh w6n dziew, not complete.

A ^it Jl niun z6n 'Ik long*, they are all there.

1^ ^ ^ z6» kwaii zah,— ^7ie2^ are all connected with —

187. ^ tk% greatj very.

M &&:k^^ohd(x' 'zz da* k(i*, it is a large kingdom.
^ :^ 8S > J> yau* du^ '/ii 'siau, will you have it large or

small ?
^ i^ ^ 1® veh du* sah kfi*, it is not very large.
:^ A >J> ffl td' niun 'siau nw, parents and children.
:k^^Wt<!^' veh 'h'i hw6;j, much displeased.
^ :k^ii' veh da* 'li 'hau, not very good.
^ ;*: SI Pt; 1® veh da* 'li k'iuh kuS seldom eat it.

188. ^^ 'hau, good, tvell, that I may, it may.
^^ini^ t'oh 'zz veh 'hau, all are bad.
M^ i^ 'ting veh 'hau, worst of all.

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^:

p. II. S. VI, PRONOUNS. 101

^ j^ hoh-'hsLii, fortunately, JttrSt at the time.
^ if M S- ^^^ '^^^ i* sz', ashamed.

if S 5 '^^^ '1^ '^^> ^^^ y^'^ ^^^^ -

•M ^ i? ^ veh 'hau, he cannot be cured.

^ tb i? veh nung 'hau, / cannot recover. [him

i? ^ 1^1 IS '^^^ ^'^'^ ^^ den, tha;t I may go and inform

^ 1ft ^ 'hau tsu' kQ*, it may be done.

189. fi ling, efficacious, intelligent.

^ SiM ^^^ l^^S ^^^9 poiverless, inefficacious.

Pg g[ H ^ 7/1 meh ling-t'su*, having ho efficacy.

SL^^ it il^M li»g sing' veh a^ sing 'If, always for.

getting. '

l%Wi^ik^^ Jl ^oMVLg ling veh 'Id sun long^, ib.
s/ 190. ^k'wa^fasty (eidv.) near ^ soon, lively.

^ ^^ k'wa' k'wa* j/au, rot^ quickly.

^ ^ ^ y^^ k'w4* 'tse, ^7 t(7i7? soon be nights

5E '^ ^ 'si k'w^* 'ts6, Ae is dying.

^ fS, '^ 1^. k'a' weh, or k'wa' loh, glad.

MM^ik 'song 'song k'wa' k'wa^, well in health.
Secticn 6. On the Pronoun.

191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as pari^

of the auxiliary particles that with nouns and verbs make up

sentences, -and they have not proceeded to separate them from

he rest of that numerous family by a peculiar denomination.

They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the
dissyllabic form. Other pronouns, or particles having no
meaning of their own (e. g. Jg, j@), are prefixed or affixed to
give them this form. The details will be found below.

Among the many simple and compound forms used as pro-
nouns, the following may be distinguished as properly and
originally such for this dialect. 1. Personal, ^, j^, ^, ^,
Ifj lijt, 'ngu, nong*, gi, 1, ndS 'ni, /, thou^ he, you. 2. Re-
flexive, g zz*, in combination. 3. Demonstrative, f|, ^, ^,
ti% i, ku*, this, that; also |gj jifc p^ 't'sz, occasionally used.
4. Interrogative, P§, ^, sa^ 'ki, what? how many? insepa-
rable, and ^ h^, what ? J^ '^^ (pron. 'a), which ? insepara-
ble. 5^ Relative. There is no separable relative pronoun,

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102 THE SHAKGHAI DIALECT.

its place being supplied by j® ku-S ^ 'sti is inseparable, and
very limited in its use. 6. Possessives. None. Their place is
Supplied by ^ ku*, following the personal pronoun. 7. Dis-
tributives. ^, ^, ^, koh, 'm^, dzoh, each, every, 8. Re-
ciprocal. None. The borrowed form :f^ ^ is the substi-
tute. 9. Indefinite. ^, p§, ^, ^, 'men, s^S 'ki, t§, some,
several. 10. Correlatives or adjective pronouns, i^g, ^, gj,
t'oh, dze;i, bih, all, other, separable and J]^ van, inseparable.

Personal pronouns. 192. The first personal pronoun in
the singular is 'ngu, fg /; the second, |g| nong* or ^ n&^,
thou; the third, ^ i or ^ M, he^
^ -^ ^ 'ngu k'i^ 'ts6, / am now going.
P4 tt ^ 3U kau' nong* dzieu' le, / told yon to come at once
i^it^^ peh 'la i 'ts6, / have given it him.
S is ^ fS '^^ P^^ '^^ 'ngu, he gave me.

In the plural \{p 'ni or ^ \!p 'ngu 'ni, express we; ^ nk
or {1 M no»g' iia', sroz^; and p i, jf%.
fS 1^ M ^ 'ngu 'ni 'liang ku', we two.

%

1^ \ na* tu hau^ niun, all you men.

When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant
place is often filled up by ^ 'zz.
^ ^ 'zz 'ngn, /.
^ ^ Ji ^ 'zz 1, 'zz gf, he.
^ 5iS >fe A 'zz na' tsong* niun, all you men.

Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as |^ H ^ ^ Jjj «eh
Hk'6«"k'iI6,a?^yow'w^; ^ ^ 5^ igS ^ i? veh 16 meh tsong veh
hau, if you do not come it will be unforttmate.

Obs, ii. The impersonal pronoun in English it, is not expressed, as J^ 1|
^ loh 'm 'tse, it is raining.

Obs. iii. In mandarin ^, ^^t, 'fife, 'ng6, 'ni, t'a, / thou, he, all form their
plural by taking ^H naun, as a suffix.

Obs. iv. Sometimes ^ 'ngu, may stand for the third person he, This oc-
curs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of conversa-
tion. The nominative is then considered as I, and the third person, he. Thus,
^^M^H^^^W^^, h'iung di' 'hiau tub a ku veh 'h'i
hwe« 'ngu, the younger brother knoics that the elder is displeased with him. This is
not the case when no confusion of persons is likely to happen ; e. g. flft H^
^ ^W^^ K 'nga;* tsing su tsz i ku* ne« niun, she looked on her
husband.

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p. II, S. VI, DEMONSTRATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES, 103

193. The idea of self is expressed by g ^ zz* M, for all
persons, generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.
'I^ S ^ 1$ 1 zz' k^ w6% he himself said.
US S ^ S "^ in iiong* zz.' ka yau'^ k'i* ku% you must go
yourself,

Obs. i. In mandarin Q 3 tsz' 'ki ; Fuh-kien, ^ S ka 'ki. ^

Obs. ii. The pronoun |§ zz', «<?(/", though not used out of combination, oc-
curs in several fixed phrases. Q ^ § zz' sah zz*, to kill one's-se'f; g ^
@ zz' hi' zz', to tw/wre one's-self, These concise forms are more agreeable and
impressive to the native ear, than the equivalent long forms @ ^ ^ JK S
M zz' ka sah t'eh z?< kd ; U MW ^ ^ ^ zz' ka M' Veh zz* ka.

Demonstratives, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are
H f@ ^i* ka% ^Ai5y and f@ f@ kii' ku' or -gl fg i k&% ^Aa^.
f^ ^^W ^^' ^^' zz' 't'i, this matter,
lUJ; >[v ^ :^ ku- ku* meh zz', that thing,
'^ -4* >J> S 1 ku' 'siau no^i, that boy,
fi* Ik -^ 56 1 b»ih zun kwong, a^ ^7ia^ time:

Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary substantives
to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle \^ ku* is omitted.
M S-tftfi^ ti^ deu 'hau pau^, here it is good toalkiug,
4fc f^ -^ 1£ ku^ tab k'i' dzu*, go and live there^
'^ ^ A ^ 1 k'we' niuA 'sau, the people there arefeiu.

Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 5P Jft ffit '°^> ^'^z, p^, that^
this, thaij though not belonging to our dialect in their monosyllabic form are
found in some combinations. 5IS ^ '^ % cohere? jlfc Jlft 't'sz di*, here; ^ jlfc
p6 't'sz, t?Mt and this. Facts of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguish-
ing between words of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition,
as separable and inseparable.

Interrogatives^ 195. The interrogative forms are p^ sa^,
tvhat? ^ X '^ Ii, lohere? and which? and ^ 'ki, what? luhich?
also 'ki ho' (hau'), hoio many,

P^ A f§ PI s^* mvm k'au mun, who knocks at the door?
P^ ^ V sa' meh zz', tohat is the matter.
ii ^ P^ V ^ nong^ yau* sa* zz* 't'i, lohat do you loant?
p§ ^ ^ sa* sti k'i% where are you going?

^ ll# S ^ tb ^^^^ s^' ^^^ ^^' ^^^g> ^^% d^ y^'^ ^^ ^^f
^'J 9S K ^ tau' 'a 'Ii k'i', ivhere are you going.
^^'^'d Ii dong, lohere?
^^^ ^^'d'W ku* u dong, %vhich placel

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104 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

^M'i^ A'^'ii ku^ niuD, which man'/

iP ^ ^ 8& '^ 'li diau luS which road?

5g ^ 'ki zz, t(;Aa^ ^ime/

1^ ^ M sa' zz zun, what time?

M iiSi it 'ki 'tieri tsong, what if is o' clock?

M-M^ ^ il'^ki bo* (hau*) dong dien, hotv many cash?

If :^ M ^ SI ^i^'i' fu 'ki ka den, how many clmir-hearers?

Obs. i. In the compound fonns here exhibited, ^ may be taken to indi-
cate place J fti" ho' is a meaningless particle used to complete the rhythmus.

Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books jpf Au, what? is found in combina-
tiona, such as ^ ^ jpf meh n^' M, there is notMng lean do. But it is not
ufled alone.

Belative pronouns. 196, The regular relative pronoun
T^ 'so, is only used in combination with }^ 'i in the sense
therefore^ and with 'dze, ^ ^, as a noun substantive, house.
3lf ^ ^£ sill sCi 'dz6, a new house.
^ ^ ^ S '^ 'so 'i yau* u'\y^', therefore you must prepare.

The place of the relative particle ^, used in books and in
some dialects, is supplied by the particles ^ \^ la ku', or
^g alone, coming after the verb.
fi ^ >^ ?ie SS H 3JS iS ^ ^ A 'md la ku' mi dzieu* ta^i

le peh la giong niun, bring the rice you have bought at

once^ and give it to the poor, M. 'so 'mai tih 'mi.
mnm^^^^^^^U'^Wm 'monglauki Va^

lau k'ang 'k'^/i lau, t'oh 'zz tsoh giun seu^ ku*, nets^ traps

and icovered pits, are all for catching animals. M. chuh

kin sheu' tih.
11 jS J4 IS M ^. ^^°g '2au 1^ ku^ vong'tsz, the house which

you have built. M. 'ni 'so kse' tih fang 'tsz.
^ ^ ^ 1H 1$ ii i^ong ti' 'song kiV fongloh, the emoluments
which are conferred by the emperor.

Possessive pronouns. 197. The possessive pronouns are
expressed by the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary parti-
cle f@ ku*.

^ is Si ^ 'ngu ku* ni 'tsz, my son.
^g -^ ^ jj§^ nong* ku' Hsu tsong, your ancestors.
H Jfe life i^ :S Ii ^ ^1 '^'we di' bi 'zz na' ku', thiB piece of
land is yours.

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p. II. S. VL DlrfnUBUTlVK PRONOUNS. 105

Obs. i. In mandarin, 65 ti^- Tho southern Fiih-kien dialect, besides hav-
ing two distinct plural forms for the personal pronouns ^ 'lin, you, Pg 'Ian,
we, has also separate possessive forms for all the three persons @ 'lin, your;
1^ 'gwan, mine; P& 'Ian, hrs; @ in, their, his. The intervening particle f@
is thus rendered unnecessary for that dialect. It is however often inserted .
When thesv forms 'gwan, 'lin, in, are compared with the personal pronouns ^
1^ ^ 'gwa, 'li or 'leu, i, the termination n looks extremely like an appei^-
age to the root in each case.

Obs. ii. After the personal pronouns, when a preposition of motion precedes,
a substantive of place is required ; e. g. S^J ^ 5^ SS 3j^ tau' 'ngu haw' deu
1^, eotne tome. This is generally true in all instances, where place is left to be
understood in English. iJJ i^ if f|§ ^^ na' dzang hau' kii' 'keu, one of
your dogs. It will be seen that the pronouns in these .examples are possessive,
though in the former, the corresponding English word is a personal pronoun.

Distributive pronouns. 198. The words corresponding to
our distributive pronouns, each, every, etc. are the following
%%^ 'me, dzoh, kbh,

^ 'me, each^
^ A ^ "^ iJI 'iiie Diun peh ih k'we', give one piece to each^
^ ^ M "t* A 'm^ kS" 'liang ku* niun, in e^eh family there
are tivo.

^ dzoh, each in succession,

jg — * ^ ^ .— rp dzoh ih ku* sah ih ktn^ let each person Ml

one. \dayl

3S H tB P^ — " fej dzoh nyih t'seh mun ih i(;e', go out once a

3S # ^ ^ E — 14 dzoh yang t'se' bah t'eh ih k'u, of each

kind of vegetable^ ^^wZ^ up one plant. .
^^^t^r^ ^ dzoh k'u hwo H'se ih 'tu, of each plant
pluck onefloioer.

^ koh, each, every.
#^•^•^55 ^^^ y^^S' s& ma ih bCi', buy a book of
every sort.

# ^ M €» ^ ^^^ y^i^g* 'ng^n suh yau', / want every kind

of colour.

^ A H i& ^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ liang sing veh t'so, men's con-
sciences tell them what is rights

^ ^ ^ koh 'kwen koh, each attends to Ins otvn affairs.

# i^ M ^ ^ IrI koh t'su' fong z6h peh dong,, different

places have different customs-.

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106 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

^^ ** ^^^® ^^® ^^^^ ^^' ^ ^^ ^^' ^ ^^^ ** ^^^ *° adjectire «»; e. g.

^ ^ koh t'sA', all places.

Obs. ii. "^ m6, means a/w?e7y«, in such phrases as ^ 51 ^ ^ (ft 'm^
yau' mong' mong*n6ng*, I wish amstanUt/ to come andmeeyou; ^ ^ 'm^ 'm^,
always.

Reciprocal pronouns. 199. Phrases such as onAino^/ier
are expressed by j^ ^ W ka and ^ ^ ka k&, mutually; or
by ;fB si^ng, together, ia combination.
^ 15 ^ ^ ft ^ 'tsong yau' k^ kd sidng pong, you ought

to help one another,
^ 3iS fS ft jS 'i^gii t'eh nong' sidng nti,^, yow anrf / meef.
3fe ^ B£ ^ ^d* kd k/iuh dzo, fafe tea together.

Indefinite pronouns. 200. The word some in some one,

something, is expressed either by ^ 'men, or by the verb 7^

yen, have. Anything is expressed by sd*, usually with ^

'2/eu precedittg; in the negative, pg m takes the place of 'yeu,

^ j^ ^ A '^^^ ^'s^ 'meu niun, a certain man of certain

place,

'^^^ KWi Wi '^^^ ^^ 'd^^^ ^1^^ ^s*^' ^^^ «t^c7i a hook

written by such a person.
W A ^ IS 'y^^ ^^^^ 1^ ^^S ^^^^^ ^^^ came a»rf said.
W :^ W i@ V^^ 'zz '2/eu ku', there is some.
Pr 0# ♦ fi ^ sa* zz* 't'l, it is nothing.
^ \^ iB M* 'S V®^ s^* ^^°g* "^^^ '^^y ^^ there any news,

201. Several is expressed by 'kf ku*, ij ^ f@ hau* 'kf
ku*, ^ td, and the borrowed form ^ ff id hau*; ^ ff 'ki
ho***' is also used.

2}S ;i M f@ A 1^ *sz *kl ku^ niun, several men having come,
ftf- ^^ 1&: hau' 'ki ti;e* su*, several times,
bfc B ^ 3j5 ta nyih veh le, it is long since you come.
Pg t^ ^ ^ m sd* 'kl h(V, not many.

* Compare use of ^ Hr in the following verses ^ ^ fij ^ ^
" Flowers grow in the Kien-chang palace " M ^ ^ BS !^ " The sound
of pipes issues from the palace of Chau-yang," fg fp^ ^ ,§, ^ " I beg to
ask in regard to those who receive favour " ^ JJ^ M M^ ^ " How long are
their eyebrowsl" These words are put in the mouth of a secondary wife of
the emperor Han wu-ti when jealous of imperial favour extended to some in-
ferior court women. The last line means " are their eyebrows so much longer
than mineV

•

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p. II. S* VI. INDBFINITB AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. . 107

Obs. The Greek tis is either interrogative who? (Lat. qutsf) or indifinite some
one, (Lat. aliquis?) In the same way,^ 'ki is sometimes how many? and at other
times several. In the latter sense however, ^ is usually prefixed. So also
sa* means either what? or any thing*

Correlatives or adjective pronouns, 202. The pronouns
used as signs' of the plural, as already illustrated in the sec-
tion on substantives are ^ ^ t'oh, dz6n, all or both^ and |g
'tsong, alh None and neither are also expressed by t'oh, and
dzeTi with a negative.
M f@ A ^ ^ ^* 'li^Qg ku* niun t'oh k'i* 'tse, the tioo men

are both gone,
^ ^ & dzeTi veh ^z, it is neither of them,
#* ^ ^ (® ^zeTJ 'zz bun* ku', they are all stupid,
^ 5 ^ It f@ *^' 'v^, t'oh t6' ku', are they right? they are
all right.

Any one you please, whoever y whatever^ are expressed by
several borrowed phrases.

^- ^ JL ^^' va?i, generally speaking ^ ivhoever.

':k JlAMiJ-BU^ififi^t^' van niun tsu* %au kas

. . dzieu' 'yen 'hau pau*, tvhoever does toell, tvill

be at once rewarded,
Obs. JL va« and sa' are the only true pronouns among these forms.

b. ^ ^^ veh kti, does not matter what,
^ ^ ^ ii^ veh ku tix 'sau, hoivever many,

^ ^ ^ ^ veh kii 'tsau aw% however early or late.
ff^ijiiMttM^^ J^^^g zz* veh kti 'na nung 'tsong
veh gioh, ivhatever he does it is never right.

c. ^ ffi dzue bieyi, as you please^ whatever,

^ ffi R^ M 5fc dzue bieTi' s^' zun kwong, at whatever time,
® M H^ A '^* 'l^ dzue bie?i* s^' niun Vung ku*, any one
would be willing to do it.

d. ^ |& veh lun*, whatever,

^ pft B# H IKI v®^ ^^^^ ^^' ^y^^ kiah, on whatever day.

^ li M fl# li 1^ ^ W veh lun^ 'ki zz, nong^ yau* dzieu*

'^eu, at lohatever time, when you want it, you

have it at once.

e. saS whatever,

S 1^ IS D^ 'siang sa* w6^ saS ivhatever he thinks, he says.

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108 THE SHAKGHAI DIALECT.

Oh$, \, Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says ^'Correlatives are words in
connection with each other, of which one contains a certain question, and the
corresponding one expresses the simplest relation which answers that ques-
tion." Thus, the question 0^ A sa' niun, who? may be answered by ^ jQ
A ^i* ^^* niun, this man; f^ 'K ^ •> dzue bien* sa* niun, any oneiokatever;
Pft ^n A ^^ **«-' niun, no one; ^ fr yV tu hau' niun, many men. So also>
SB ^ St I& '^ 'li tsahz^w, Wi/cAZtort^? may be answered by ^ ^ tV- tsah,
thii mtc; ^ tk ^ ^ ft veh lun' 'a '11 tsah, any one whatever; ^^ ^
t'oh voh 'zz, it is neither; ^^ Jft H ^ M ft IS X peh 'ku* <i' dah 'ki
ts&h Z^n 'li, «^ must be one of tlwue that are here; >^ ^^ ^ |p 'zz bih tsah z^«,
rf< 14 another; 15^ W M ""^ 'wl f0 Ift t'eh zie« deu ih yang' ku* zcm, the
tame boat aa before. Several of these questions are answered by particles already
presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding, a place
readily under any one class, are collected under the name of correlatives.

Obs. li. The corresponding forms in Latin. Omnis, neuter, nuUus, alter, alius,
are classed with adjectives ; Zempt calls them pronominalia. Buttman says,
that the line between the corresponding words in Greek, as adjectives and as
pronouns, cannot be clearly drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians
call all these words pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they
should be called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.

Obs. ill. $5 *ts6ng, all, is found only in the compounded forms, ^ i^
*6ng' 't86ng,- iS i% 'long »ts6ng, m aU; ii i^ 4^ "& ^ 'long 'tsong kii'
pdk sing*, all thep«opl4. The substantive must accompany ^ 'tsong', as in ^
jft yi ts6ng' 'di h'iung, all th* brothers, and therefore, it must be considered
an ai^ective. ^ is not found compounded.

Obs. iv. All\s also expressed by repetition of the substantive, j^ iS W iS
t*8i\* t*sii3i* *^u k\i*, evti^y where they are to be had. v. Art, 129. Another mode is
by phrases, such as -^ 5^ ih gong*, "-^ "^ ih t'sih, the whole.

Obs. T, Another translation of all is by J^ JL ^' van. Yaw is used in the
8«ni)e of till in books, but in the dialect of Shanghai is only met with in this
cou\iM>uud tV>rm.

203* Other differeiit^ are expressed by pih M ^^7 ^ M
Teh il6njr, or by ^ ;|| li&ng j/^ng% not the samcy or by the
j>article X preoediug the substantive verb or by ^ ling-.
TAe Siune is ih yi\ug* -^ #|> or jfg |^ sitogdong.
?^ P4 JM A P^u* kau* bih niun, call another nian.
tt & M HI '^-<^ng '2E bih y4ngS it is certainlt/ different.
^ W :SI ft * tau* bih dMng hau* k'i% go el^ichere,
JW IB B ft hih ka* k6h da, another nation.
ift Ml If ^ ft V^^u l! veh doiij k\i\d(ftr€nt in principle.
i£ fti £ tl fi «i>^* deu iian- ^^\i>^* *ku% tcr^at he sajfs is
dij^rtmt^

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P, II. S. VI. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 109

^ "^^MM veh ih i/^ng^ k(i% nqt the same.
X S -^ f@ ^* 'zz ih ku', ihat is another,
^ P4 — <@ ling* kiau* ih ku^ call another.
■^ t^ 1@ § ih yang' kil* 'va, is it the same?
;fB (^ f@ si^ng dong ku% the same.

Words used as pronouns. 204. The use of some other
W45rds in combinations, where they occur instead of the pro-
nouns will now be illustrated.

a. ;$; 'pun, belonging to this place, as demonstrative pro-
noun,

^ Afe A 'pun di* niun,^eojofe of tMs place.
^ tt IS 'P^u dl* v)Ki\ dialect of this place.
^ )® ^ ft '^ ^ iB 'pun miau* 'zz u zong^ kw6w kuS this

temple to which I belong, is superintended by

Buddhist 'priests,
^ H f@ S ^M 'punkohku* kwe 'kii, custom of this country.

b. ^ kiun, now, the present. As demonstrative pronoun,
this, in reference to time.

. -^ igj -^ H kiun tsau, kiun nyih, to-day,
^ ^ ^ ^ kiun nioh, kiun nleii, this month, this year.

c. ^ t'sing, one's own, as reflexive pronoun self; ^ ^
t'sing sun, himself; ^ P t'sing 'k'eu, his own mouth,

d. ^ >i? tQ 'sau, how manyl as an interrogative pronoun
^ /|^ :^ |£ tu 'eau nieri 'ki, how many years old.

205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the per-
sonal pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depre-
ciatory in their meaning, while if others are addressed, the
adjectives employed are respectful.

d|: tsun, honoured, :0; kwe% ib, "jg kau, high, combine with
^ sing, family name, ^ koh, kingdom, etc. [name?

:^ ^ tsun singS ^ ^ kwe' singS ^ ^ kau singS your
d|: ^ tsun kang, ^ J^ kwe* kang, ^^ ^ kau zeu^ your age?
^ ^ tsun t'su', -^ ^ kwe* t'su*, whe^^e do you live?
j^ jj^ tsun 'fu, ;S; jj^ kwe* 'fu, tvhere is your residence?

Obs. i. ^ 'f«, also forms part of the combination )^ Jl 'fii long', rm-
dence; e. g. ijj Jl 8|S ^ 'fu long' 'a 'li, where do you reside?

Obs. ii. Jt © k"^^' koh ask.o/w'/w< Jwnonrcd country are you? '^ J|fe kw6'
^'^ what is your place of residence? ^ |£ kau du is translated' yow/ scMar ;

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110 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

^ ^ tsnn ka' and A ^ siang' kong, are used in place of you, among those
who are not m an inferior social position.

206. ^ ling, honouredy good, applied to persons, enters
into many combinations, where it represents the possessiye
your,

^ ^ ling tsun, your father, ^ ^ ling dong, your mother.
^ 51 lii^ h'iung, yr. eld^ bro. ^ jg ling dzeh, your nephew.
^ f^ iingdi%7jr. younger bro.^ ^ ling long, your son,
^ ^ A ^^S ^^ ^^^9 your wife,
^ m ^^^^S ^^^ ^^9 ^^^^ scholars.

207. ^ 'lau and ^^ tk^ are found in similar combinations.
^ {-k) ^ 'lau (^uO yk^'sir. ^^ A i^' z^n, ib.

^ (;fc) 51 'lau (tk') h'iung, elder brother.
^ (:fc) ^ 'lau (faO ku, i6,

Obs. i. ^ 'lau is also prefixed to ^ ^ siew sang and l^ -^ fd *tsz,
addressed to teachers, and to >fB 5^ siang* kong, addressed by servants to
masters. The form of address to priests, is ^ ^ ^ 'lau sz t'a', and to in-
structors ^ piS 'lau sz.

Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of the
pronouns of the second person; "^ t'e, honoured with "^ 'fu or ^ dz6n*,«?A<rf
if your honoured- name? In the plural are found 'fd ^ tsong* «r6' or JTJ tt
lih weS all you gentlemen !

208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pro-
nouns of the first person are equally numerous, ^ hon^ cold;
^ j>i, spoilt^ inferior; ^ dzie?i, poor^ cheap ^ fdl*m such groups,
as —

^ PI (^) ^^^ ^^^ ('^^)> ^y house.
^ Jj /iOTi kiung, my wife, (kiung is thorn.)
Jfft iS (Afe) (i5)jpi t'sCi^ (diO (h'iang), my abode.
^ (IS) ^i^i (dzien) sing*, my family name,
5^ ig dziCTi ming, ?/iy proper name,
Jlj ^ dzicTi neS my wife,
Obs. One's wife is also denominated f|8 ^J tseh kiung, tfupid thorn,

209. The antithesis of ^ ling, is usually ^ s6% a cottage.
Among the groups into which it enters, are —

^ ^ so' di*, my brother. ^ ^ so* dzeh, my nephew.
^ ^ 86* 'au, my house, ^ ^ so* t'sing, my relations.

210. Many groups take |J> 'siau, small^ or ^ kk, family j

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. VII. ON THE VERB. HI

both being regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the
pronoun my,

>h Si 'siau rh, my hoy or my son, i]\ ^ 'siau k'io;^, small dog.
>h % 'siau dn, your scholar. ij> ^Gg 'siau sun, grandchild.
>J^ H 'siau dV, L >J^ ^ *siau 'nli, my daughter.

^ ^ ka h'iQng, my brother. ^ # ka 'mQ, my mother.
^ ^ kd 'vu, my father. ik <K ka soh^ 7m^ wncZe.

Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style of
gpeech, or $ ^ fS 1% IS k'ah k'i' ku' seh w6*. In the every day col-
loquial of the lower class, i. e. the majority of the people, they are little used.
Thou and /, thine and mine are prefixed.

Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns, it should
be remembered that the tendencies of the language are against the introduc
tion of*the pronouns, whether there be a substitute or not. Thus instead of ask-
ing, "Is your eye better 1" The Chinese say BB H* if f^ S 'nga» tsing
iha,Vi'tien*Yk, eye better, ehT So, for "what is your namel" Sj B^ sing'
sa*, name, whatf While the pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for
the speaker to introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he paay
think fit. Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to mean you and
your, while their opposites are / and mine.

Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used ia letters, but as
they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. iMany of them are
collected in Qutzlaflf's *' Notices of Chinese Grammar."

Section. 7# On the verb, fS ^ ^
211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, '^ One use of verbs is to connect
tbe parts of a proposition." ^^^ ;^^, — JKlgJ^±
T^, " Thus if it be said, books instruct mankind/' Jll 5^ 3it
^ ift, (lit. writtings delivered down to mankind); "the word
books is the subject, mankind the predicate, and instruct the

copula.- ^n±^.i&i^^^.my:in^,mm±

f 4^,. " Another use is to express actions." — ' Jit 3^ ffi A
:^. " Thus if it be Said, write a book, or correct an essay,"
4nSf^3!C^'3CJ^alS- *' write and correct are both ac-
tions;" f^ ^, If ^, -^ A ^ •&. '' for both these uses,
v6rbs are indispensable," *^ Verbs are very numerous; of
those in constant use, there are about two thousand." *' There
are also verbs oftwo inseparable characters; e.g, ^ ^i?u su, .
m^ove confusedly y and ^ g p6n taen, to linger."

Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from
among the single characters commonly used in writing. Many

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n

112 TflS SHANGHAI DULECT.

of these are, in colloquial dialects, expressed only in a dissyl-
labic form; thus, H mCi*, to deaircy is only used in common
conversation in such componded forms, as j| H 6' ma', to
love. The number of inseparable compounds is thus rendered
greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With
regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books
which are not in the colloquial, and vice versft. For examples
of verbs found in written colloquial mandarin, v. page 63.

Verbs will be treated (I.) according to their modes of group-
ing; (2.) according to their most general nature, as transitive,
intransitive, or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the par-
ticular modes in which their sense may be conveyed (moods);
(4.) according to time (tenses).

(I.) Grouping of verbs.

Simple and compound verbs. 212. Examples of verbs of
one word have been already given, A few more will be suffi-
cient here.

jj^ fong% let go. IK tsftn, to bore.

•U t'sih, cut in pieces. |SF sieu, to prune.

Jlj t'slen, cut away. jjl.jjauS to plane.

|[l] tsan, chop small. ^ teh,*pitch tents.

J^ tsoh, to reap. ^ t'sSh, pull down.

Jg wah, scoop out. ' J| dzong*, meet.

213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs
similar in meaning, but with no reason except custom for the
order in which they are employed.
Ji W ™^ tsong*, to bury. SE ff ^ H^^ to pity.
^ Kl ts6 men, conceal. |S # 'tau kau*, to pray.

3t ^ tseu* m6' revile. ^ KB 'pau pi*, protect.

IH ^ dau w^n, exchange. ^ i^ 'tsz 'tien, point to.
Jp ^ k^ fien, add. j^ ^ van lau, importune.

IJ ^ w6^ w^% calumniate. ^ ^ t'sung tsan^ to praise.
^ Obs i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no objection whatever
to their use. Thus, Jl ma and ^ tsongSmay be used separately or together,
as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage to the foreigner in using the
compounded forms, because a mispronunciation of the tone of a single word
is nearly compensated by the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speak-
ing diifereht dialects.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S, VII. SINGLE AND COMPOUND VERBS. 113

Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these dissyl-
labic combinations; e. g. ^ ^ 'wong 1^, go andewm; ^ S '^^ "^^'» .*"y
aiid sell,

214. In many instances the first verb governs the second,
as a verb does a substantive.

^ ^ 'za siau', cause to laugh.
tS JT P'^' 'itng, fear being hcatcn.
tfl 5E P'^* 'si, /ear dying.
gg ^ k'e 'kong, begin speaking.

Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted grammatical
forms, the second verb in each case would become either a substantive, or an
infinitive, (i. e. they would be always substantives, infinitives as destitute of
time, person and number, being not true verbs). In reality ^j JJ* siau*,
'tang, »tc. are according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs
nor substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form. They
are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by position. Verb
however, is the most convenient denomination for them, because ^when taken
alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.

215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb
qualifies the second; as in other languages, participles and
adverbs qualify verbs.

|§ -^ kii k'i', return home (lit. return go).

U^ ^^au le, come running, (lit, rim come).

^ ^ sah le, come fighting.

^P S^'s^^ '^^^y ^^ ^^Py ^'^ tf^'i'iti^g (lit. copy torite).

Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning "^ k'i', ^o, is limited by that which
precedes, 6S ku, to the sense of returning home. If the idiom be compared
with the English phrase r7» back, ^ ku is the adverb placed before instead of
after its verb. In $( ^ 'ts^w le, come bacJc; the verb 'ts^w is also best trans-
lated in English as an adverb back.

Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as qualifying
the following verb. »l| ^ B^ |^ "f ^ ^ 'mo (Iwrse) le ni, giau* 'tsz (tedan)
le, did you ride ar came in a chair?

216. The order of the words in many of these phrases,
may also properly be referred to priority and sequence in time.
That is, t\^o actions are successively expressed.

^T Ii 'tang ha', fight and be defeated-

^ ^ k'au (to beat) k'e (to open), to knock open,

n^ ^ 'ngau p'u*, break by biting,

IS ^ 't'sing 'z(\,p)lease sit doion.

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114 TAB SHANGHAI DULBCT.

5g ^ 'sift torn ^finish writing.
JK \^ tgii^ Aing^ finish making.
^ y^ tiau^ 'si, die by strangling.

Obs. The English verb open, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb, like the
Chinese, has evidently notliing to indicate to which part of speech it belongs,
but position. It is on the principle of position, that in such phrases as an open
door, knock open a door, and to open a door, the word is referred to its proper
place in the parts of speech. There is this diflferencej (I) that in k*au k'e ^
^, the latter word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English exam-
ple, it beconaes a true adverb ; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an ad-
jective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is expressed as a
separate proposition j e. g. for an open door, P^ ^ i& mun k'e 'la, the door is
open.

217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur,
which have nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as in-
dependent verbs. In the following examples, it will be ob-
served, that these enclitics or proclitics, as they may be termed,
often add nothing to the meaning of the principal verb. They
are % i;uh, 1% t'eh, Jf 'tang, £ kienS ^ zah, ^ dzCl^

a- ^ tub, get, may.
|g ^ t'ing tub, hear. ^ % 'hiau tub, hnow.
^ % ki* tub, remember. |g % niung^ tub, be acquainted.

Obs. This term, though here it has no meaning, will be seen to be a very
important word among the mood particles, as giving a permissive sense to the
l)rincipal verb. Such is its most common signification is such phrases as
ySL w tsu' tub, it may be done.

b. H^ t'eh, let go, escape^ remove out of the way.
^ Bg k'i^ t'eh, remove. |^ B% dru t'eh, to remove.
jj^ 8^ mih t'eh, destroy. ^ ^ fong^ t'eh, let go.
% 3^ leu t'eh, to leak, "^ |^ 'tseu t'eh, escape.

^ B^ dim' t'eh, sweep atvay.^ |^ toh. t'eb, rob of.

Obs. Tliis word may be regarded as forming a derivative^verb. Its primary
meaning is seen in )J^ ^^C ^ t'oh i zong, take of one's clothes, where the hook
sound t'oh is employed.

c. J7 '^^^o5 ^^ beat, apply one'ssclf to,

Jf ^ 'tang 'sau, to sweep, ff ^ 't^ng t'ing, to inqnirc
tT Wi 't^ang fah, to send. ^ j^ 'tang sew*, to fan.
J7 ^ 'tAng so7i*, consider.. ^7 j^ 'tang kih, flo a h^o^

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p. II. S. VII. COLLOCATIONS OF VERBS. 115

Obs. The primary meaning of ^ 'tang, is seen in such phrases as ff ^
'tang tsong, drive piles; ff i^ 'tang 'hu, strike a li0t,

dn ^ kie/i^, indicates a single act of perception.
^ ^ i!6n^ kiCT^^, see. , |g ^ t'ing kien% to hear.
§^ ^ mong^ kienS see,

e. ^ dzah. This word expresses that the object implied
in the verb is effected.
m ^ J^ang* zah, to meet.
jS ^ nti^ zah, it,

Jg ^ tsoh zdh, catchy or succeed in catching.
^ ;^ 4iun zah, i6.

^ ^ moh Zah, rwJ, or can he ruhhed.
fjf ^ doh zah, succeed in robbing.
^ ^ tuh zah, succeed in getting.
^ ^ 'ma z§.h, succeed in buyiug.

. Obs. i. In these examples, this meaning of the auxiliary is preserred, and
must be regarded as additional to the sense of the principal verb, except in the
first two instances.

Obs. ii. In J^l ^ 'siang zah, thinJc of^ the word ^ zah limits J§ think
to the sense of think of smne particular thing. In ^ y^ koh zah, become aware
ofy the verb ^ koh, cannot in our dialect l)e used separately. It is however
found in ^ ^ ^ ^ veh tsz veh koh, not he aware of.

/. ^ sah, to hilL
^ Ifi" ^ veh w6' sah, he did not say decisively.

g. ^ dzu% resist, take firm hold. This word always pre-
serves its meaning, but it occurs so frequently in union with
verbs of resistance and interruption, that it deserves a place
with the preceding enclitics.
H, >^ 'tsu dzii*, resist.
^ ^ 'sii dzu', prevent motion by locking up.

m ftvoh dz^S ^'^- ^y ^yi^Sf '^P-

P^ ft ^ngau dzQ', hold ivith the teeh.
^ ft niah dzft*, hold in the hand.
in ft t'sieu dzu', hold with the hand.

h. ^] tan*, arrived.
ffl JlJ yuag' tauS ernfloy to the utmost.
^ 3|lJ tsu' tau^, do to perfection.
^ fij 'tson tou% compute a journey on foot.

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116 THS SHANGHAI DULECT.

B^ Q K& i^i dzoh nyih '^au* tau*, he arrived yesterday^

218. In many csRes a substantive follows the verb, when
it is unnecessary in English.

jg ^ 'tseu lu% to walk. j^ ^ \mh pu*, to weave.
^ ^ zok tsIeiiS ^^ shoot. J^ ^ *fong s6, to spin,
^ IS yau z^Ti, <o 5cwZ;, }g i^- tveh ming*, to live.

Obs. i. So also f S" IK fo tro* seh w6\ to speak. The words seh wb^, words,
are as to sense superfluous. Yet many of these examples may be closely trans-
lated; e. g. fl K 'ling luS Uad the way; j^ fLR sau va«', to boil rice, to cook.

Obs. ii. When the substantive comes under the government of another verb
its usual companion is frequently appended; e. g. ^ IS P2 dzing \m' k'iuh,
seek for food, where [^ is superfluous,

Obs. iii. When the sense does not require a substantive, the reason of its
introduction must be sought in the rhythmical construction of sentences, pecu-
iar and essential to the Chinese language.

219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a
transitive verb and adjective. *

JH ;g k^ (add) dzang {long)^ to lengthen.
^ }g t'sing {to make near) 'giun, {riear), become near^ to ap-
proach closely,
M 9« ^ioh, (dig) sun (deep), to deepen.
^ tS \m (subtract) k'iung (light), subtract from.
JM 1^ ^1^^ {place layers) kau (high) raise by layers.
IS :k «^o* (speak) du* (great), speak highly of.
f^ fi 'P" ifo cover) 'm^n (full), fill up,
^ ^ kau* (instruct) t'so (wrong), teach tvrong,
8fc jE 'ke (change) tsung* (correct), to correct.
|g ^ tsoh (catch) lau (/rm), ca^c/i and retain.

Obs. i. The word ^f 'hau, ^«%f, is found appended to many verbs, giving
to them the sense of completeness, ^ j^ tsti* 'hau, cowpleU the mcking of.

Obs. ii. These examples shew how in Chinese, compensation is made for
that class of words called derivatives in languages possessing a system of ter-
minations. Instead of a formation like prohngare, to lengthen, from Umgus or
long in Latin, or lengthen from length in English, we have a separate word pre-
fixed to the adjective dzdng, long. Many English phrases are compounded in
the same manner; e. g. rub stnooth, rub dry, which are equivalent in sense and

grantmatical construction to the Chinese forms, ^ ^ mu kwong, \^ ^
k'a kuw.

Obs. iiij ^ t'so, wrong, is found after many other verbs ; e. g. f^ 'tong,
understand ; ^ t'ing, to hear ; x^ <e', treat any one. In every case, it is predi-
cated of the action, that it is wrong.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. VII. COLLOQUIAL VERBS. 117

220* In some dissyllabic verbs used transitively, one of the
constituent words is a substantive.
JgJ B^ io6 (turn) deu (hecid)^ to answer ^ to telL
^ jjilp long' {tric^) zun )spirits), to deceive.
PJ ^ ta-u' {reach to) 'seu (Jiand)^ have in possession,
^ ft son^ (calculate) kV (apian) to plan.

Obs. These may be seen to be transitive, in such sentences as l^J SF ^
St JIB S ^6^ '1^3,u long* zun bang 'yeu, yow sAo«<Zf/ wo< deceive friends; Wil^V^\
53 ^ daieu le lo^ deu 'ngu, come at once and tell me,

221. Some colloquial verbs, with examples of the manner
in which they combine with other words, are here inserted.
Si ± ^ loh '2;ong k'f, go up (m. ^ shing, J£ p*a).

?& ffi 35 i>au* t'seh 16, t(;aZAj out (m, 5^ Hseu).

^ ft Ji geh dzu* 'la, held hy the arm (m. ^ hieh).

ik ^i^ang* zah, meet (m. jg ii' and p'eng choh)^

i$ ^ J^®'^ 'tseTi, ^2^r7i round (M. fej hwei).

Ji PJ Jffc Jfi *^^ *^^' '*'s2: diS ftHn^ here (m. ^ nd ^ twan).

^ ^ hwah t'eh, f/iroz^? atm?/ (m. \Ji f jeng' hia^.

^ ;fB ^eh siang^ ^0 ramlle (m. ^ :j5l|£ yeu kwang').

f^ 1^ t'aT^ t'song, to be ashamed.

^ ^ fg peh 'la 'nga, give it me (m. |& ki^, 'kei),

^ P^ tsu' suS to deceive.

Obs. At Sung-kiang 'pun, is used for peh, in the sense oigive. \% has two
pronunciations, 'i?au rww, and pau' walk,

222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.
® ffi[ ^* Q>^fore) be^ [prepare), to prepare,

?fB tT^^^^o (mi^^waZZi/) 't^ng (6eaO, tofig^it,

jjg ^ siang (mutually) mo' (raz7) rat7 a^ OTie another.^

Groups of three, 223. Propositions and words equivalent
to them combine with JjS le, come, and ^ k'iS go, to express
the direction of the action of verbs.
iK ii ^ k'au tsing' k'i% hnoch in,
IB Jl ^ ta?i 'zong le, hring forward.
^ T ^ 'tseu 'au le, walk down,
^ U ^ sah zieTi k'Vy fight on before.
j^ ^ J|$ lok 'k'i le, stand up.
^y ^'z\x 'an le, sit down.

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118 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

^ M^ 'zQ tsing* k'f, sit farther up..

JK {f{ JJS ft t'seh It, fly out.

;^ ig JjE 'tseu ku* le, come through.

^ ii ^ 'la ku* k'i^ drag past.

mi&^^oh 'k'i le, lift up.

|§ I J JjS sok 'U^n 16, turn bach.

^ T JJS ^wa?i' 'an le, throw down.

^ ^ JJS 'tseu k'6 l6, imZfc at(;ajr.

Obs. i. Thus we have an idiom similar to the English, except that the verbs
of motion are added. The common prepositions annexed to verbs (and there-
fore sometimes called adverbs), follow the verbs in both instances. Of the
Chinese five are verbs, which are all used as prepositions, ffi t'seh, to go outj
outward; Jg tsing', to go in, inward; jB 'k'i, to raise ttp^ upward; JQ, ku*, to
pass, through, across ; ^ 'tsew, to return, hack; ^ k'e, to open, away. Of the
prepositions Jl 'zongf, forward, Tf *au, backward, doumward, M zief?, before,
the two former are also frequently employed as verbs in the dialect as well as
in books; e. g. Jt ]^ jf| 'zong Su-tseu, go to Su-cheu; Tf §§ 'an z6n, to enter
a boat.

Obs. ii. In the classical languages, the prepositions were put before the
verbs instead of after them, as in the derived words ascend, descend; and an-
other numerous class of terms belonging to our western tongues, is thus seen
to have its equivalent compound form in the Chinese language.

224, ^\i^heginning Q.ndi co^npletion oi ^n ^oi\on are ex-
pressed by appending, j|£ ^ 'k'i le, legin, and j^ X z^^^g
kong, complete y to the verb ^ 'k'i is also used alone, and the
words ^, ^i^, w^n, ding, flnish, and j^ 'hau, welly stand for
completion.

^ jg JJS 'sia 'k'i le, begin ivriting.
IK J^ X tsu* zung kong, to finish making.
$ J^ X ^^* zung kong, finish painting,
^ ^ M^ ^^^^ ^sau tsu' 'k'ij begin to-day.
3^ ^ IK ^ 'ki zz tsu^ wtn, when will you finish?
^ # IS 1? ^^^ ^nng w6^ ding, has not done speaking.
5^ i-f ^ 'zau 'hau 'ts^, finished building.

Obs. i. In examples with jfe 'k'i, we have an equivalent to that class of Lat.
derivative verbs called Inchoative o^ Inceptive; e.g. calesco, J^rot^ wann,
from ealeo,

Obs, ii. 3^ 'kl is sometimes omitted e. g. iS 3^ ^ ^ tsu* 1^ veh 'hau
do a thing badly. But then the sense of beginning is lost also.

Obs. iii. This form is also assumed by adjectives, as |^ ^ JJS nyih 'k'i

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P, II. S. VII. GBOUPING OF VERBS. 119

Uj become hot; ^ >JS IS ^ ^ nyih 16 wo' veh tub, it U excetmely hoi. In
dialects west of Shanghai ^ ^ JJS nyih tuh U, is used for it is hot,

Obs. iy. The substantive governed is place between j^ 'k'i and JJS 16; e. g.
Wl i&^^ 'toug 'k'i 'seu 16, to move one's hand. The same thing occurs
with some of the other groups. t$ IS ^ fl ^ V^^ 'ts^w sun 't'i 16, tum
one's body round:] t& ffi l¥ ^ 3jS ta« t'seh yang die« 16, bring out dollars,

225. Collective and separating verbs are formed by }||
'long, collect, and ^ k'€, ojpen.

mi JjS dzu long le, collect together,
^ ii 2jJ 'p'ng 'long 16, add together.
"^ ^ ^ saTi k»e le, scatter.
ffiS IB 3}J t'sdh k'e le, undo.
^ ^ JJS f'ln k'e le, divide.
M ^^'^^ k*6 le, untie.

226, Reflexive action is expressed by placing g zz*, be-
fore and after the verb.

g PH g zz^ h&li zz*, frighten one's-self.
g |g g zz* p'ien* zz*, deceive one'sself,

Obs. In examples of this sort, the constituent words are pronounced closely
together and might be written with hyphens. They correspond in their sense,
to the Hithpahel conjugation of Hebrew verbs, and the middle voice of Greek
and Sanscrit. In a monosyllabic agglutinating language, no nearer approach,
could well be made to an equivalent of those forms, than is exhibited in such
groups as these.

Groups. Affirmative and negative. 227. The groups
formed by help of the afltonative and negative particles are
very numerous, so much so, that they constitute of them-
selves a feature of the language. The Chinese colloquial
idiom is very much indebted to them, for the force and pre-
cision which it is acknowledged to possess.
In these groups ^ tuh and ^ veh {/^ puh M.), take the centre,
and certain auxiliary words, with some adjectives and verbs
stand last. The sense of the principal verb is thus limited and
modified in various ways. ^ tuh and ^ veh being opposite
in sense, the modifications they produce in the sense of the
verb must be opposed also. They may be reduced to the fol-
lowing pairs of terms.

1st. It is predicated of the agent, that he is able or knows

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120 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

how to effect the action of the verb and the contrary; e. g.
3JS tsu' tuh 16, able to do or make; ^^^ tsQ* veh 16, un-
able to do or make,

2nd, It is predicated of the agent, that circumstances allow
him to effect the action and the contrary. Thus, ^ ?| ^
tong tuh Vf, in circumstances to bear; ^ ^ ^ ^6h veh'k'i,
cannot afford to learn to read; ^ ^ ^ tM veh 'k'i, not
strength to drag^

3rd, It is predicated of the action, that it can, or does
succeed, and the opposite; e. g. 1^ f| ^zing tuh zah, can
find (^ zing seek); ff ^ ^ 'tang veh z^h, it did not, or can-
not hit,

4th. It is predicated of 'the action, that it can, or .can-
not be performed in a particular direction; e. g. ;^ ^ Jg 'tseu
veh tsing^, cannot go inside,

5th. Of verbs of motion, resistajice and destruction^ it is
predicated, with the help of auxiliary verbs cognate in mean-
• ing, that the act they represent, can or cannot take place. ^
^ ^ 'tseu tuh 'd6ng can taalk; H. ^ '^ Hs%veh dza% un-
able to resist; HI ^ B^ 'ka veh t'eli, cannot get rid of,

6th. It is predicated of a verb followed by an adjective,
that the act is or can be performed, to the extent indicated
by^the adjective or the contrary; e. g. ^g ^ ^ i ^cure) tuh
'hau (good) can be cured; i% ^ ^ ti^n veh 'men, cannot
be filled by layers.

228. Of the auxiliary words, used in affirmative and nega-
tive groups, verbs are the most numerous.

a. JJS le, come, (fjH'seh, go out^ express able to.
^ ^ J$S 'sis, veh le, do not know hoio to write.

K ^ 2jS t'ing veh 16, have not the power to Jiear.
P^ ^ ffi kiau* veh t'seh, hiota not ivhat to call it*
Ml # Ul 'kong tuk t'seh, can discoxcrse on it.

Obs. A group of four is sometimes made by introducting an adverb.
I@ b^ ^ ffi t'lDg dd* veh t'seh, I do not hear very well.

b. jg 'k*i, risCj expresses in circumstances to,

^ ^ 1& 'pa^ ^^b 'k'i, it it not for me to look angry.
BH ^ & k'wun* veh 'k'i, afraid to sleep.

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p. II. S. VIL GBOUPING OF VERBS. 121

^ ^ M '^lon veh 'k'i, will not bear to he dyed.
fa ^ 1& y^^^ ^^^ '^'U ^^'^^ ^^^ ^^^'^ impressions.
Mi ^ 1& kien^ veh 'k'i, do not dare meet him.

^- 5^> {ii> ^> zdh, t'seh, kiew% express success in any sin-
gle action; verbs of striking and seeking take zah; while
verbs of thinking and perception take t'seh and kie7i%
P^* ^ ^ kiau* tuh zah, succeed in calling him.
^ # ^ sah veh z§.h, not succeed in killing.
^ ^ {fj 'tong veh t'seh, cannot understand,
^ ^ tB k'^^^ ^^^ t'seh, / do not (or cannot) see it.
M ^ M k'oTi* veh kien^ ib. '

^- Mf ffij My ^f Wj ^} express direction as in the ex-
amples. , ^
M^ M tsing* tuh tsing^, able to enter,
ff ^ m Aang veh t'seh, cannot pass out,
Pt; ^ ^ k'iuh veh loh, cannot swallow or eat.
t^^ % pau^ veh ku*, cannot pass by.
IS ^ 1$ soh veh 'tseTi, cannot return.

tf % ^ 'tan^ tuh k'e, can beat open, [or want of room.

Bi ^ -^ k'wun' veh loh, cannot lie doivh {either through pain

«• M> i&j ft» ^'eh, 'jJong, dzu', express destruction, mo-
tion, and resistance, e. g.
M ^ BM ^^^ ^^'^ *'^^> cannot destroy,
M^ Wl *s^* ^^''^ 'dong, disabled from work.
J^ :^ f jj jpau^ veh 'dong, unable to walk,
^^ ^ 'mie^ veh t'eh, unable to avoid.
A ^ M ^^^ ^^^ dzuS not able to stand,
^ # ft tong tuh dzCi', able to resist..

f :^ tuh, expresses ^ermissioTi and prohibition.
SJ ^ # '^ong veh tuh, may not do it.

^ % k'i* tuh, may go, ^ * .

^ ^ ^ # ^au 'tseu veh tuh, may not flee.*

g. I{^, %j express the cessation of an act.
P4- ^ i? kiau' veh ding, not ceo^e to call,
9S ^ 1? k'oh veh ding, not cease to weep.
M ^ % 2/ung' veh wqu^ cannot exhaust by using.
^ ^ W t'^^g^ ^^^ ding, not cease to pain.

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122 TflE SHAKCffiAI DIALECT.

^^ J5^ 3^> ^9 PJj express perfection of an act.
M^ J&^ ^^^^ ^^^ dzung kong, cannot complete.
:^ # 1§J 'tseu tuk tau^, caTi walk to.
JS ^ Pi 'siang veh tau*, cannot reach in thought.
]R ^ M ^ ^^^ tsiVi^ cannot come up to or equal.
^ -^ ^ Si pau* tah veh dzing% unable to shew sufficient
graiitude.

in ' 35^ ^h or k\, expresses there is t{mef(yr.
^ ^ ISL t'sau veh gi, not time to copy.
oi # R tsfte tnh gi, time to overtake.
^ ^ ISi^^ veh gi, not time for it,

j. ^ loh, expresses room for.
}S # i^ koh tuh loh, room to pack. •
^ ^ ^ on veh loh, not room to place.
^ ^ ^ 'zu veh loh, not room to sit

K j^ ku*, indicates that the verb it qualifies will give
superiority.

|T-lfctTfi» ^i5,|J4lS#^iS, 'tang 'd 'tang i veh
ku', w6^ 'd w6^ i veh ku', cannot* conquer him
by beaiingy nor by using the tongue.

Si '^ iS fih tuh ka*, can oppose him successfully.

I. gi 'li, to control, long, bring together^ ^ sah, kill and J^

2/ung*, answer J add their own sense to the verb,

IS ^ 8 t^o' veh 'li, not attend to what is said^

5^ |§ 8 ha/i* tuh 'li, loill come when called.

^ ^ IM ^^^ ^^ 'long, cannot agree together.

p^ ^ m kiau^ veh yung', 7iot ansioer a call.

Obs. i. In some instances, the sense of the auxiliaries varies from that as-
signed to them here; e.g, ^ ^ fe k'ow' veh 'k'i, /o «fc«pM<?/ R ^ S
'ma veh 'dong, not succeed in buying; m m 'i^ !& siang sing* veh ku', incre-
dibft; iS ^ S i* veh ku', cannot but pity; ^ ^ f^ pk' veh tuh, indis.
pensable.

Obs. ii. ^ 'y6^> ^^*'^ ^^^ P^^ ^' **^^ ^^ ^''^^^j ^^"^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^®w groups ; e. g.
W f-§ P£ Veu tuh k'iuh, Ae^f^ something to eat; Pjt f^ ^ ,^ tuh tsah, Aa«;tf
nothing to wear.

Obs. iii. Examples are rare in the case of Xaj BJ2» Wi^ >8Sj and 8>
The rest are all extensively used.

229. Prepositions similarly employed in these negative

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p. II. S. VII. BBPETITION OF VERBS. 123

and affirmative groups are rare. Those that are used may
also be constnied as verbs.

a. "Uf zierif before,

^ ^ m sfth veh z!ew, does not go forward Jighting,

b. Ji 'zong, forward,

I2I ^ Jt loh veh 'zong, cannot be climbed,

^ !^ Jl 'su veh 'zong, (key) cannot be turned {cannot loch.)

P5 IS ^ -t Daun kwaii veh 'zong, door will not shut.

c. T^ 'au, down.

^ ^ T l^h veh 'au, cannot climb down,
B^ ^ T^ k'iuh veh 'au, cannot swalloio,

230. Several adjectives are found in these combinations;
e. g. ^, it, $, S^, m, % ^, 3i, BJ, 6, etc.
H ^ ^ ^6h veh dzie/i, cannot be read through,
f $ ^ bIL s^^ ^^^ dzuh, caw;io^ stretch oid straight,
^^ % t'so veh tu, differs little.
^ ^^w6^ tuh 'hau, well spoken,
^ ^ }8| 'pii tuh 'me/i, caTi be filled up,
^ ^ *M '^^^ ^^^ *'oJ^g> ^^ thoroughfare.
Uf ^ B^ 6 ^^o^ veh mingbah, cannot be made to understand.

Obs. In the third and fourth examples, and others like them such as ( & f^
T^ pau' tuk kVa', the proposition is not one of possibility, lie can walk fast j
but of fact, he ivalJcsfast.

Rejpetition and Antithesis, 231. These occur extensively
among the verbs. The meaning of the word repeated remains
unaffected.

a. Many single intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransi-
tively are repeated.

^ ^ 'zQ zu*, sit down. ^ ^ k'o^^ k'o^*, look,

h. Transitive verbs are repeated before the word they
govern.

S S ^ 'si^ 'sia zzS write.

38 ^ tsong* tsong^ die/i, toorh in the fields.

c. k'oTi*, 566, occurs after a repeated verb, in a metaphori-
cal sense.
B^ B$ ^ sd su k'(mS see what it is.

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■I

124 THB ffiOAKOflAI DIALECT.

9iJ&M *'i°g *'^^S k'm% listen to it and see.

S S S sz' sz^ k'6»% ^ry i^ awd see.

M MM tsu^ tsu^ k'oii^, make it as a trial

Oba. K'ofi' also follows other groups, as J^ j^ ^ ^ nian' *k\\6 k*6f»',
read and let mejiear.

d. The components of dissyllabic verbs are often repeated.
S^ H ^ ^ ^^^ daTi soh soh, conversing.

pf Hi 55 55 « di k'oh k'oh, loeeping.

2fJ 3jK ^ -i 1^ le k'l^ k'!% coming and going,

e. Some dissyllabic verbs repeat themselves, not their
component parts,

H^ ^ jp gH^ p'an dan -p'sin daw, talking.

^ § ^ § kung 'h'i, kung 'h'l, I congratulate you.

f. When a dissyllabic from consists of a verb and its sub-
ject, a group of four is formed by repeating the former, and
supplying the place of the latter by a synonymous or con-
trasted word,

rti iS t^ J^ ^ P^®^ ^ ngow% not having a shore.

^ ^ fil Jm '^ODg 'seu 'dong kidh, move hands and feet,

W S W ^ V®^ ^i^g 'y^^ l^^S there is evidence.

g. Sometimes both the verb and its object are varied by
synonymous or contrasted words.
^ 5c ^ J& Ajieu t'lew pS.^ di', pray to heaven and worship

earth,
ff a^M^ ^ing* sing gih lih (or liuh), employ one's whole
mind and strength.

h. Some verbs are repeated with a pair of antithetical
verbs in alternation.

!fe 295 !fe -^ 'P^^ 1^ 'P^^ ^'^S t^aZiiwg about.
^ M^ tii y^^ <sing* yau t'seh, row in and out.

232. The verb is repeated with the intervention of |@ kiiS
or of — ih to represent a little of the act in question.
jfe — jfe Hseu ih 'tseu, walk a little.
^ — ^ 'tung ih 'tung, wait a little.
# iB ^ ^^' ku* d6S wait.
^ ^ ^ 'zu ku^ 'zu^ sit down.

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p. II. S. VII. DIFFBBENT KINDS OF VERBS. 125

Obs. Sometimes auxiliary substantives supply the place of the re(peated
verb ; e. g. jjft "^ f^ kk ih b6S make it as large again. Other auxiliaries are
5a> ^> f^Jj t'sz*, t'ongS w6', applied to any verb in the sense of times. For
going round in a circle |5 'ts6« with the numeral expresses the number of
times. For beating |fi ki' expresses the number of blows. See Art. 168.

(2.) Different kinds of verbs.
Substantive verb. 233. The verb to be used as a copula
is often omitted. [cation.

fS 1^ H ^ jm 'ngu 'ni tok su ku*, we are persons ofedu-
SI 10 A :S ^^ ku* niun dz^ng, tliis man is tall.
^ ^Ml^ kiun tsau tsiie^ 'lang, fo-day it is very cold.

234. The words g* 'zz and ^ U\Y are employed as sub-
stantive verbs, and :^ 'dze, ^ Ji leh 'Id, ^ ^ leh 'll, when
existence in place is spoken o£ They are put in the negative
by prefixing ^ veh.

^ |g /f@ 5 'zz nong^ ku^ 'vd, is it yours?
g |@ ^ ^ ig 'zz ku^, veh 'zz ku*, it is; it is not.
^M^^ 'ngu tsu' dze vong, I am a tailor.
'^ S* "Ji ^ ^ tsu* ni 'tsz yau* h'iau', he who is a son should
bejilial.

^ m ^ Jifc M ^^^ ^^^ '^^ '^'^^ ^^* ^^ ^'^ not here.

Obs. i. The verb P^* kiau', to eaU is sometimes so used that is may be
translated as a substantive verb; e. g. i yang* Vau '11 veh kiau* 'hau, ^^M

S ^ P^" i? ^^^ ^^^ ^f ^^^^^ ** '^^ ^^^' ^^ ^ ^^ ^^* ^^^^ ^^ called good.

Obs. ii. The words ^j jl^9 and f^ are used in fixed phrases, from which
they cannot be disengaged. © §8c f^ i zz* ka tsok 'ts^,be your own mas-
ter; fifc S i© # "k^ oh w^ 'z^n, repent and be virtuous;^ S f^ K Mang
dau' tsok 'tm, the robbers are rebelUftg; ^ ^ tong ping, to be a soldier.

Obs. iii. ^ is also used as a transitive verb make or do^ ^which is its pri-
mary meaning.

Obs. iv. ^ to have when no object follows affirms existence and is to be
translated by the impersonal substantive verb, in English; e. g. ^ W 5 *?^
Veu 'va, are there any JisM S W jft S *k'i 'yeu 't'sz 'li, hm can thw be?
(It snows now, is ^ 8 ^ ^^^ sih 'ts6.) Its negative is 1^ m or P|| ^

235. Transitive verbs take the object after them, while
the nominative precedes.

* The substantive verb either simply affirms tB 'zz or it affirms action ^
tsu' or it affirms existence in place ^ 'ze, ^ $k leh 'la, or it affirms existence
W 'j/eu.
u

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126 THB SHANGHAI DIALECT.

"^ MMM^ f& kw67^ 'fu k'uh b6h p4k singS the man-
darins exact from the people.

^ It ® y ping 't'sidag meh zz', the soldiers commit rob-
beries.

236. When there are two objects as in verbs of giving,
the nearer comes next to the verb, and the more remote stands
last, usually with jj 'la.

^MWt^ tti^ song' 'li veh 'la nong^, present you with gifts,
JS IK ^ {^ P^ peh vaw' 'la nong* k'iuh, give you rice.

Obs. This is the same as Remusat's rule, " Dans les verbes a double rapport'
le complement direct se place apr^s le verbe, et est suivi du complement in-
direct " 5C'?I6^A]!S5C t'iew 'tsz nung tsie«* zun u tle», the emperor
can propose a person to Seaven; the order is not however confined to this one
form J e. g. jII J3^ f]^ ^ /|^ y song' 'la nong' ku' meh zz', I bring you a
present y is the same as, song' meh zz* 'la nong'; f^ iM M iSl ^ 9 s^ng'
nong' 'liang ku* meh zz* I bring you a few things, is just as proper as song'
'liang ku' meh zz* 'la nong.

237. The object is made to precede the transitive verb, by
the use of the auxiliary ^ ta/t, which is also the sign of the
instrument,

& iS ffl i^ 5^ li tan lah tsoh 'hu t'sz 'yun, blow out the

candle.
Si ft 7i 3JJ ff taTi tsak^aw le Hdng, strike with a bamboo.
fi PI ^ •? *an mun kwsLn tsz, shut the door.

238. Intransitive verbs when not followed by a preposi-
tion or another verb, prefer the last place.

Jifc M ^ 't'sz di^ 'zu, sit here.

H IS !t ii' deu pau* walk here.

%t^^'ki zz 16, when did you come.

fS JIB J: 2JJ 'nga zen long* le, / come from the boat.

Obs. When a preposition is employed to connect an intransitive verb with
a substantive, the verb may precede or follow ; e. g. pj jlfc J| JjE tau* 't'sz
di' 16, come herCy is equivalent to le tau' 't'sz di*. So also ^ ji ^ ^ 'zu 'la
d* tah, sit here, is the same as 'la tV tah 'zu.

239. The passive is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb
18 V^^y 9'^'^^j with the substantive that represents the agent,
to the transitive verb.

}8 S»J A tT peh bih niun 'tang, loas beaten by others.
18 # iSfc PS ^ peh i tsu* su 'ngii, Itoaa deceived by him.

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p. II. S. VIL MODES OF VERBS. 127

Obs. i. This auxiliary particle f^ peh, givej has in all four uses : — Active,
t8HMf@ ^ ^H-^ peh sa« 'Hang ku' tong die« 'la i, ffwe him two
or three cash. Passive, 7^ J4 !$C 'S^ K l^peh 'la 'vu 'mu tsah be', ?tewas
rebuked by his parents, ^ ^S Ji "^ f S ^ A^ ^^^ 'ng^ k^' mau*
'tsz peh 'la niun t'eu tsz k'i' 'tse, my hat has been stolen by some one. Causative,
mS # 3E peh 'la i 'si, came him to die-, # fl ^ fS P|? ^ ^ i peh
'la 'ngu k'iuh k'u (k'w6) 'tse, he has caused me to sufer. (m. ^ shi* P^ kiau',
chiau^) Permissive, P§ A "S* ^ ^ S(I A Sfe ft BS sa' niun 'k'ung peh
'la bih niun c'hi vu* ni *? who is wtUing to allow others to imtdt him? Z9 S 7^
$fc X'J A 1^ ^ 18 veh yau* peh 'la bih niun hong' p'ien* nong*, do not allow
others to deceive you.

Obs. ii. In mandarin it is not the common word toyire, that is choSeti for
the passive auxiliary, but a word set apart for this purpose ^ pei'.P

Obs. iii. 'Zeu ^ to receive, is often used as a passive , e. g. ^ ^ S ^
A *^ veh 'k'ung 'zeu bih niun mo', unwilling to be spoken iU of by others. K'iuh
US is found in combination as in the next examples. When separated from
the groups where it is the sign of the passive, it recovers its transitive sense to
eat.

240. Verbs are made causative "by prefixing kan*, to call,
or peh, to give.

VA ^l& M ^^^'^^ 'Dg"^ k'iub k'ii, causing me to sufer loss.
^ ^ P^- •§ 6 7^ JK veh yau^ kau' ngii bah song' t'eh, do
not cause me to give it aivay (or say it) in vain^
P4 ^ ^ ^ ^ kiau' 'sz veh yau' 'kwun, prevent the water

from boiling,
^ jS fS RS '^ ^I V^^ '1^ 'i^g^ k'iuh kwe/i sz, causing me to
he the subject of a lawsuit.

Obs. i. The English auxiliary verb mmt is expressed by ^tsdny, as in ^&
^K ^ M. 'tsong yau' lau zeh, you must be upright.

Obs. ii. The derivative verbs which have been already illustrated are the
following: — Inchoative, ^ f& ^^ti 'k'i pihl6, take up the pen; Reflexive,
& ^ S zz* y6«* zz*, be one^s own enemy; Collective, ^ im JjS ^eh 'long
U, combine together; Separative, J^ §9 JjS t'sak k'6 14, pull open; Completing,
tS 7D 'zau w&n, Jinish building; Resisting, 5S 1* ^^^S dz\i', stand against;
Destroying, ^ J^ tieu t'eh, throw away. There are also forms for the vari-
ous directions indicated by prepositions, v. Art. 223.

(3.) Modes of verbs.

241. In very many cases the mood is determined entirely
from the sense, and has no particular sign.

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128 THS BHAHOHAI DIALECT.

9S '£ K '^K* ^'^^ '^°*» ^ ^^^ 90 and buy. (Indicative.)

4 d -^ il ft S'zz n6Dg*kV wanblen* tong% if you should

go, it would be more convenient, (Subjunctive.)
fli ^ S n<Jng^ k'l* 'ma, do you go and buy. (Imperative.)
%.&^ ^ '^^ 'zz yung f, to buy is easy. (Infinitive).

Obs. Here the four principal moodi of Latin grammar are exemplified with-
out any distinctive sign.

242. The particles ^ 'tefe and ^ meh, at the end of the
clause often mark indicative and conditional propositions re-
spectively.

JH£fifM5|t^1ft*f* ^}^^' 'dz^ loh'fi meh, nten sz* 'hau
'i&b^shotdd it now rain, it will be a good year.

^ la life 51^ ^ H * nfe» *kl dfl* meh veh yau* 'ta6, if old,
they are not wanted.

Obs. i. The conditional clause always precedes.

Obs. ii. These particles may in many cases be omitted without affecting the
sense. ^ JSI M H tt H ^ IS veh loh 'w paksing* yau' »k'u 'nau, if it
does not rain, the people must suffer,

Obs. iii. Li any two connected clauses, whether the former be conditional
or not, these particles are frequently used; e. g. k'dn' kien< tsz *t*au van' ku'
meh, dzieu* 'tang 'k'i 16 'ts6. SBill'lffiS^^8t^TjSj^#
when he saw the beggars, he began beating them Both these clauses are in the
past time.

Obs. iy. An indicative clause standing alone often takes ^ *t8d. Thus ^
^ 16 'ts6, lam eotne, or Jeome;];^ ^ k'i* *ts6, 1 go.

243. Another particle found in conditional sentences, is
^ tsz, appended to the verb. This marks the past partici-
ple of the verb.

5 BS i: IR ®E ^ ff ^g^ k'i'it *sz van* dzieu* \€ 'ts6, having

dined I came at once„

244. A potential mood is formed by many of the groups
already illustrated. Both kinds of ability, absolute or natural,
and limited or moral, are found in them. For examples, of
the former kind: —

%^ 5^ 'si^ veh 1^, I cannot write.

W^^^ 'kong kieu^ tub 16, 1 can discuss it.

^ ^ 19 waTi veh 'tQ^n^ cannot turn round.

* ^ %

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p. II, S. VII, MODES OF VERBS. 129

Obs. "^ wi^j prefixed to verbs makes them potential J§ ^ JjS nia»' veh
16, / cannot read, is equivalent to veh we^ nia^i'.

245. The limited potential mood is formed by ^ 'k'i. e. g.
^ ^ 1& tong veh 'k'i, I do not deserve to receive it,

^ ^ il& k'ieTj veh 'k'i, not able to pulL
|g ^ jg mu veh 'k'i, will not bear rubbing.
B^ ^ ^ k'iuh veh 'k'i, cannot afford 'to eat it,
iT ^ M '^^^S ^^-^ '^^^} cannot bear beating. [roughly.

• ^J^ ^ & 'seu ngang' veh 'k'i, could not use my ha7id

246. A permissive and prohibitive mood is formed by, —

a. # tub.

^ ^ k'oii* tub, you may look at it.

^ ^ # k'w* veh tub, yoxi may not looh.

b. ^ 'hau, and rJ" j^ 'k'6 'i, also give a permissive sense.
i? JS -sfe S '^^^^ tsing' k'i^ 'vd, may I enter J

^ if ffi -^ veh 'bau t'seh k'i% you must not go out,
IT JW P£ # 'J^o '^ k'iuk tub, you may eat it.

247. An optative mode of the verb is formed by p6 veh
tub, and Ang* veh tub. {% 7ingS west of Shanghai /iung*).
fS El ^ # ^ IK i!( '^S^ po veh tub Vwa' 'Hen tau^ w;o2^Zd:

f/m^ / could arrive quickly.
1R ^ # ^ A? Ang* veh tub tsu* 'bau, I wish I could do it.

248. The imperative (1) in its negative form takes ^ yau^,
want, with the common negative particle ^ veh.

^ Ic H '^^'^ y^^^ nau*, c?o t^o^ 6e noisy.

(2.) The affirmative form of the imperative is expressed
by the verb alone, or by 5^ ^ meh 'tse, or ||j9a' appended
sometimes to a few verbs.
^^ ^ 'tseu meh 'tse, go. ^ H k'i' bd', gro.

Obs. All the verbs single and grouped, except those with the affirmative
and negative, may be used as imperatives without a particl^, ;^ S Jj£ 'tseu
ku* 16, means either I am passing you, or pass over to me,

249. Of ike Infinitive it may be remarked, (1.) that it
stands first in many negative groups not potential, v. Art.
228. g.

^ ^ W iiiafi* veh ding, does not cease to recite. "

^ ^^ W *'sau nau^ veh ding, does not cease to be noisy-

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130 THB SHANGHAI DULEOT.

(2) That when a verb is made the subject of a proposition,
while the predicate followsMth a copula, the verb is trans-
lated in the infinitive, e. g.
^ £ ^ ^ k^i* 'zz yong !% U is easy to go.

250. When a verb takes a case particle, it is construed as
a present participle or gerund.

^^Wl1&^ ^gIi zz' leh '14 le, the things are coming.
flS IS f® M jfc k'iuh va7i^ ku* zun kwong, time for dining.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ngw 'la 'sia zz*, / am writing.
V&M ^ ^ k'iuh ku^ meh zz', things to eat

Obs. The supine in order to has no sign, S ^ IJ^ "^ ^ '^^ ''^®* ^^'
k'i' 'ts6, he is gone (in mder) to hit/' something ; ^ ^ M M IX 'n§^ 1^ mong*
mong' na', Ic(me to see you. v. 252. f.

251. The forms of interrogation are of two kinds.

1. By the interrogative particles ma^i* and 'va.
IR ^ ;S ^^'^^ *^^^ maTi^, is dinner ready?

^ -g k'i* 'va. will you go'f

2, By putting the question in the form of an affirmative
and negative, side by side. The particle ni is often placed
between.

"W ^ ^ 'W ^ 'k'ung k'i' veh 'k'ung k'i^, will you go or not/
^ # ^ ^ '^ 'h'iau tub veh 'h'iau tub, do you know?

H B6 ^ H '^^ ^^ ^^^ '^^9 ^^^^ y^'^ ^'^y-

Obs. After ni, the second clause is sometimes supplied by sa*; e. g. 51 f X
B6 B^ yau 'tang ni sa', do you want tojight, or what is it you want to dot

(4) PaHicles of time ^forming tenses of verbs.

252. For the expression of present time, no auxiliary word
is necessary.

^ ^ M9k '^S^ ^^^ *s^* s^S ^ ^^ doing nothing.
2|S BS ^ ^ 1^ ^i veh 16, is he coming or not?
"Ifi ^ iS 'toDg veh 'tong, do you understand or not?
t& ?^ S P'o' '1^^ 'va, do you fear cold?
^ tit ^ i& f^ veh nung veh p'6* 'lang, I cannot hut fear
cold. .
Obs. Instead of considering the rest of the tenses in their order, it will be
better to take the particles in succession, and show what tenses they may be
used for.

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p. 11. S. VII. TENSE PARTICLES OF VERBS, 131

a. ^ h'ih, a moment; this particle gives a past sense to
the phrases in which it occurs, and is perhaps most accurately
designated an aorist,

^ ^ SS^^ ^'^n^ h'ih h'i* \d, have you seen the play?
-sfe -Bfc M f^ k'l^ h'ih lidng w6^f I have gone twice,

h. ^ 'ts6, SI 'li; these particles express that the action is
conpleted, or determined on. m. "J* 'liaii. Their English gram-
matical equivalent is usually the passive participle joined
with the auxiliary verb to be.
H ^ IS ^* '^^ 'tau '1^ 't66, they are bought.
J[ fl& :S i^&* t'eli 'ts6, it is sold.
^ '^ ^ 'ngu k'i* 'ts6, 1 am going.

c. jg kii*, joast; this particle has the sense of the preterite
tense.

Hi i5 M III *^^* ^^^ 'Hang w^\ I have gone tioice.

?E S jS ^ iJ^ hwo tsong^ ku* tu 'sau, how many fiowers

have you 'planted?
Kr !fe JS 5^ ffc M lu* pau* ku* 'ki ho^ % hoio many miles

of road have we walked?
Obs. ^ 'yeu ^^^ RT *^^0j employed in some dialects as signs of the past,
are never so used in this.

d. ^ ^ h'ih 'ts6 or h'ih 'Ik 'ts6, express perfect time.
® ^ iS ^ ^ niung^ tuh kii* h'ih 'ts6, have known him.
^ ^ IS -Ifc ^ t'^h i 100^ h'ih Hs6, have told him.

IS ill: Dc ^ ^ tsong k'au h'ih 'la 'ts^, bell has rung.
JE ^8 ^ ^ *'^^ P®^ ^'^ '*s^, have entrusted to him.

e. jS -Sfe ku* h'ih, form a perfect farther in the past than
the above.

3fJ jg ^ ^ 16 ku^ h'ih 'ts6, 1 have come formerly. *
^ '^ ^ J5 Si veh zung k'i' ku^ h'ih. I have not yet gone,
^ is 8k JS ^ ^<>k ku* h'ih 'Id 'ts6, 1 have learnt it before,

f ^ yau% expresses future time; sometinjes tsidng pre-
cedes, 51 may often be translated in order to (supine).
^ ^ M ^ yau' loh *u 'tse, it will rain.
^ 18 ^ ^ ming tsau yau' k'i% I will go to-morrow, »

g. 3f tsidng, is frecjuently used for the future.

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132 THB SHANGHAI DIALfiCT.

X W M 9* tsi&Dg 'yen nau^ zz^ there will be disturbance.

Obs, These particles give the affirmatiTe ftitiire. The fonn 'for the nega-
tire is different as is shown below.

A. i t8Z; this particle appended to a verb, gives it the
time of a past participle. English auxiliary participle having.

^ i: < ^ IS ^ ^ ^^' ^ s^ ^^^y '^''^^ ^^ '^l ^^^
you have read it^ you tvill know.

9L ^^i£fVlt 't<^Dg ^ Dieh 'hau 'kong, ^wJien you under-

stand it^ you can explain it.
ffiiJePtlTH*^ tsu* tsz ping lau 't4ng tstog* k'i^
'ts6, having become a soldier^ he hxis gone to fight.

Obs. As a relative tense partidi*, this word may be used in past or fotore
time. In the former case, it is the sign of the narrative participle; e. g. ^ £
i: ill ^ P§ ife Jl -^ ^k'6ii*kie»»*taz8aiikaulau, »t8eu'zongk'i'»t8^,
ieemg the hiU was high^ he went up. In the latter case it forms a future perfect,

snch as is introduced in English with " when," ^ f^ J^ f§^ ^ ^ ^
'sia liau tsz peh la 'ngu k'oii', when you hmte written ft^letnutetU, The con-
ditional particle 3^ meh, is frequentiy introduced at the end of the first
clause.

t. ^ zung; as ;5l tsz expresses the past in affirmative sen-
tences, so zung in tho'se that are n^ative,
^ IS M^\ ^^ zung k'o»* h'ih, I have not seen it.
is a 79^ veh zung 16, he has not come.

Obs. In a negative reply to a queaticm, this particle is introduced, when in
English the present tense is employed ; ^ n ^ ^^b cung kl*, hi u not gone.

253. Adverbs of time often render these particles unne-
cessary.

W B * ffl zoh (g) nyih k'i* ku*, he went yesterday.
fS M S ^ '^^ 'h^^ ^t^ k'lS IshaU go on the day after,
to-morrow.

254. The particles for future time are not used in the ne-
gative form.

IS ^ ^ '°g« veh k'iS / shaU not go.

Obs. L If yan' ^ is onployed in a negative sentence whose time is future,
it is in the sense of imAor muA; e. g. ^ ^ ^ ^ 'ngu veh yau' kl*, I do
nUwiahiogo. j|f tsiang, when it occurs, must stand first^ so that when ^
veh introduces the s^itence, it caimot form a part of it.

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p. II. S. Vn. EXAMPLES OF VEBBS. 133

Obs. ii. ^ '^' ^ veh kiew' tnh, it is not likely, is very commonly em-
ployed as a negative future; e.g,^ iS ^ ^ M ^eh kiew* tuli loh 'w, it is
not likely to rain, or it wUl not rain.

255. Examples of ^ome verba that require illustration are
here appended.

a. ^ tong in combination ought, receive: tong% regard as,
to paivn. N. B. The tone differs in the last two senses.

^ ^ "^ ^ ^ # PS *^^g' *sz nieu peh 't'sau i k'iuh, regard
Mm as a buffalo, and feed him on grass,

^ ® ^ ;2l S f@ klung ku' tong* tsz 'dzong ku^ ^hat is
light regard as heavy,

^ ^ f@ ke tong ki}*, ought.

^ Ifc ^ veh 'ken tong, not dare receive it.

^ 5R ^ -^ tong' i zong k'i% am going to pawn clothes.

b. ff 'tang, beat, set in operation.
iT ^ ^ 'tang kwe/j sz, go to law.

}T "^ W 'tang kw^n w6^, speak mandarin,

}T ^ S 'tang t'sieu fong, mahe presents in hope of gain.

c. f^ te^, to treat, wait,

^ Jj§t t^' man% treat contemptuously.

^ A^ijfyt^' niun tsih veh, treat persons respectfully.

^ fS JjS ^^ '^S^ 1^> ^^^'^ ^"^^^ I <^ome.

d. i'§ siau, consume, melt,

H if k'e siau, to expend, $'§ j;^ siau ykng, to melt.

e. 1^ te' (d) correspond, opposite.

Sgl |j ^ J^ Hsong veh te* 'kiung, nothing pleases him.
H in ^ 1^ kung* ka veh t^', still more lorong,
|& M S ife JJJ *^^ mieTi' k'o?^' 'k'i le, on the other hand you
see.

f. ^ long', meddle with, play ivifh.

# M l^ng' tv^', spoil. f^ ^ tsoh long*, deceive.

II lk J^ JEr l^^g' '^^ zung tsun, making-believe becomes

truth at last,
H ^ 'fB long' beh siang', amitse one's-self with.

g- § ftS i^ expend,
§ JB ft* yung', expenses,
^ )jH^ fi' zun, ^ >JJ fi' sing, may I trouble you,^

i*^-i

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134 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

h. ^ 'zz, it iSy it is rigJit^ right.
M ^^ '2Z fi, right and wrong,
S 'H^ @ 'zz tuh giuh, very right.
WS II& ^ ^ ^ sd* veh 'zz, not at all untrue.

i. fjf w6^, say (m. 'ki^ng^ or shwoh), in combination, words.
Sf ^ tt ^^' v^h 'tse;^, will not listen to words, or he keeps

his words,
IS ^ "^ ^^' ^^g* tong', said decisively.
R^ |3f ^ sa* t(;6^ deu, why use such words?

. "vj 'k'6, can^ may.
'^' tft 'k'6 Ang^, a thing to he hated, hateful.
^ ^'J^ ^seh ze* 'k'6 6' truly to be loved, (truly loveable.)

Obs. These forms with 'k'6, might also, if construed as dissyllables, be placed
among the adjectives, as derivatives from verbs.

I. ^ 'tau, to overturn.
^ 19 t'e Hau, to turn over.
JS IS tt 3j5 tien 'tau 'ts6n 16, place upside dotvn.
\% ^ ^ 'tau veh 'zz, and yet it is not.

m. ^ sdng, produce, he hy nature, he horn.
iB 8^ ^ # J-f 'ill '^^ sang tuh 'hau, has handsome ears.
^ ^ J-f ^ sang le 'hau ]s!bn^, naturally handsome.
^ ^ ;& "M ^1* sung tsz ziQn, before birth.
^ ffl :S: 3l ^ sang t'seh 'ku 'tsz 16, hear fruit.

Section. 8. Prepositions and Postpositions.

256. The words that express the relations (cases) of nouns
to one another are placed, some of them before and some af-
ter the governed substantive. The case particles that are
used for the dative and ablative are prepositions, as also thosQ
that express motion toioards and substitution.
ff 'tang, from, hy. ^ te*, to, towards.

^ zong, from. ^^ij tau', to arrive at.

Jt 'la (M. ^), to. ^ t'i*, to, with, instead of.

^ tah, with. J^ t'eh, to, for, with.

[^ ^ong, loith. f^j ^e*, instead of.

Jl^lien, ib.' ife yeu, 6?/.

Obs. i. Wi T& Ich la, a locative particle also precedes its noiiu. x^ ze*,

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p. II. S. VIII. PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS. ' 135

its M. equivalent is in our dialect only used in fixed collocations, as ^ ^
zeh ze', certain. ^

Obs. ii. iQ zz' is an inseparable preposition used in combination with
z6ng,/rww. S a locative preposition, preceding its noun, is also only found

in fixed groups; e. g. ^ ^ tong Vsu, forjnerl^.

Obs. iii. Several of these words are also used as verbs with a cognate sense,
viz. y^» l^lj, ^j pg, to follow^ to arrive at, to correspondj to take origin front.

Obs. iv. j^ «;^', on account o/, is found with the particles ^ tsz, or ^
zah; ^ tah also very frequently takes ^ tsz.

Obs, V. J£ lie«, together with, is also used as a verb to connect. It frequent- <
ly takes ^ tah, after it; e. g. J^ ^ -- ^ g ^ A lie« tah ih ka oh
'li niun, together with all his family.

257, The particles that are used for the locative case are
postpositions,

% 'li, inside, U zieTi, leford,

^ ngaS outside. ^ V^eu, lehind.

li long', above. R. 'zong. f 'Jiau, below.

Obs. 1. ^ '11, forms the compound ^ |rI 'li h'iangS wmk^, m. ^f*
chong; £i 'i, combines with ^h nga', "gj zie« and ^ 'heu, in the sense of
beside, before and after, or szWe; e. g. -^ ^ j^ ^ kkm tsau 'i Aeu', after to-day.
Numerous compounds of these words, which will be found among the adverbs,
are also often used as prepositions. See Section 9.

Obs. ii. The mandarin ff chong, inside, is found in some compounds; e. g.
S T* k'ong tsong, in the air.

258. Forms borrowed from other parts of speech, compen-
sate for the absence of several prepositions.

1. Of, the particle of the genitive case is compensated for
either by juxta-position, or by the particle \^ ku',

' MM^U Tsung koh kwe 'k% custom of China.

5 A f@ V Hpihniun ku' zz' 't% ivhat concerns others.

2. ■ With, (instrumental) by, are expressed by H ta?^, and
peh 'la or peh, ""

iRM ^iW' *a^ kau 'tsz t's^ng,poIetheboat with the bamboo.

3. Except is expressed by the verb |^ fl^ dzu t'eh, us-
ually with jy &h 'i ngaS or ^ ^ nga^ deu, ending the clause,
1^ flS ± li f@ ^h 51 ^ :§; fS dzu t'eh tsz nong^ kiV nga^
deu, dzieu' 'zz 'ngu, excepting you, there is only myself.

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136 THE SHAKGHAI DIALECT.

4. Beside is expressed by.^ ^ veh son', at the end of
the clause.

>J^ ^ ^ ^ 3111 W *-• S '8ia^ ineh veh sot^*, Z:6ng* 'tsong
Veu ih pah, tvithout countirkg the small, there are 100 in all.

5. Beyond takes Jg ^ ku' k'i^ or ^ |g nga* deu.
H 3K jS * 'Kwong tong kfi^ k'i^ heijond Canton.

6. Through or pass Uj is expressed by kiung ku% or ku'
alone,

8& ± S J5 IS; W lu' long* kinngku^ Sbng-tseu, go through '
'Hdng-cheu on the way.

7. Towards is expressed by the verbs ]^, g, ^, zau,
mong^, te^

^ M $f i^ ]|i ^ zau si 'tse;^ waT^ zau nm, go to the west,

and turn to the §outh,

18 H Ji ^ zau dl* pfeT^ 'tseu, go this ivay.

S i: HIS ^ mong* tsz di* pie7^ 'tseu, ib,

^ iSfc ^ ^ te^ kii' k'w6* Hseu, go that way.

Obs, Some of these prepositioas in English, are easily reduced to verbs
and substantives. The author of the Diversion of purley would readily jBnd an
etymology for them all. In common English grammars, such words as regard-
ing and respecting J are set down among the prepositions, without a word to tell
the juvenile student, how it is that prepositions come to be formed by the ter-
mination ing.

Section 9. On Adverbs.
Quality. 259. Adverbs of manner are formed by affixing
z^n, hti, nung and 'li, to repeated adjectives,
BS Bi i^ 'j^^S 'y^g z^^j ^ot dearly.
ft ft ^ h'iung hlung z€n, prosperously. #

f5f ^ ^ yah yah /m, indistinctly.
M M "^ '^^ 'ki All, very near.
^ ^ fg h'i h'i nung, seldom met with.
^ ^ fl 'h'ien 'h'ien nung, dangerously.

^j^M '^'w^' l^'^a^ li, quickly.

Obs. i. Ze« and Au, are found in book phrases transferred to the dialect
Expressions formed with nung andj'li, are piure colloquial, and are very num-
erous.

Obs. ii, Kiau' is used in one instance jg }g^ ^ ma«' maw' kiau', slowly.

Obs. iii. Long adjective groups are more frequently used as adverbs than
as adjectives. They do not take the formative particles zew, nung etc. ^, ^
*~* P5 ^l? S» 'tseu lu* ih mun sing sz, he walks eagerly. •

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p. II. S. IX. ON ADTBBBS. 137

260. The numerals — ih, 1^^'li^ng, combine with certain
words, principally adjectives, to form adverbs.

— ^ ih dzuh, straight. — jg ih lUUy joined togetJier.

— ^ ih k'i* together. M ^ 'li^^g ^^'^S separate.
^ ;|| ih yangS the same. M ^ '^^ang 2/dng*, different.
-- 1^ ih h'i^ng% hitherto ^ ^ ih dzi, together.

— ^ ih t'sih, the whole. -- ^ ih dau, ib.
^- jjg; ih p67e, the same.

Obs. These may be shown by examples to be adverbs. ^ JS M ^ 10
foug* 'la 'liang k'i' Yvi\ place them apart;^ '^ ^ # "T )|^ tong' i 'vu 'mu
ih p6w, treats him in the same way that he does his parents,

261. Repeated adjectives standing before verbs, are used
as adverbs.

^ ^^ Hsau 'tsau le, come early.

{§! j!§ ^ ma/i* maw* 'tseu, loalk slowly.

Obs. Sometimes the acljective is not repeated, as in fx "^ maw* k'i', be slow
to ffo, good lye. In ^ J^ 'tseu 'hau, tcalk carefuily^ the. adyerb follows the
verb as in English.

262. Repeated forms imitative of natural sounds are in
frequent use.

'y ^'X ^ ting tong ting tong, sound of drum ('ku).
$j| IK i^ iK soi^S loJig song long, ib. horse bells (Ung).

♦fi il W ^ ^'iJ^ ^'^l^ *'it ^'^\ sound of shoes.
1l^\ki^\k ^^ ^^^ ^t kw4, calling of crows.
^1 IS S^J IS kwah lah kwah lah, wind blotoing on reeds.
^ Jc ||c J£ ping ping p^ng pang, noise of beating ice. ^
^M ^ M 'i lili '^ lili' braying of asses.
^ ^ J[Jl ^ 'i a 'I a, creaking of doors.
l69 A ]69 ^ ^ l»i «^ 1"» sound of piping.
WH ^ JS ll^ pih poh pih poh, sound of splitting bamboo as
by fire.

Obs. Words of this sort occur so frequently in conversation, that at the risk
of their being thought too amusing for a serious book they are here noticed.
The second and third tones scarcely occur in these onomatopoeia. The forms
used in other dialects differ from these.

263. Adverbs of manner applied to qualify actions, and
not reducible to the heads already given are such as, —

6 6 ^P^ ^^ '^^ ^^^ vaiTi; or,^ah alone, e. g,^ah song*
t'eh.

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r

138 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

4f # ^ ^uh duh 'If, on puiyose.

4^ ^ <uh i*, in^ntionaUy,

% ^'^ t'eu be7i 'tsz, secretly.

^ ^ ^ 'k4 y4ng den, falsely.

# qg yung* 'h'l, ZttciiVy,

^ fll 'zau h6*, ^]g^ IJ- hah 'hau, fortunately.

264. There is a large number of primitive adverbs, ap-
plied to qualify adjectives.

a. H kung% jg traw, % i\ H tsfe', signify more. They pre-
cede their word, and form the comparative degree, v. Art.
'177.

6. IH 'ting, g tsiae*, ;g iiuh, ^ man, fS tw^S J3^ 'hau,
j^ 'hun, very. These words precede their word and form the
superlative, v. Art. 178.

c. S 's^j ^ ^^> S *^^^> S 'y^; come after their word
and form a superlative.

d. ^ t'uh, gives to adjectives the sense of too; e. g. j;^ j^
t'uh du*, too large.

Obs. i. These words which in English qualify only adjectives, sometimes
qualify verbs whether construed as participles or not. ]H Sfe Jt fB 'ting 6'
*la ku*, the most beloved; g W JR man we' tsu', extremely well able to do it;
IS US <<'0* sah, tap decisively; S W 3C Sl*i«ih 'yen vun 'li, has very {great)
literary beauty; or it has extreme beauty,

Obs. ii. The mandarin intensitive particle jlj* 'hau is found only in the
phrase jlf ^ 'hau 'ki, very many.

Obs. iii. It has been seen in illustrating the comparison of adjectives, that
some verbs, single and grouped with the auxiliaries tub and 16, ( ^, Jjj, )
are applied to adjectives. In addition to the examples there given, may be
noticed fH^ ^ i& nyih veh ku*, unbearably hot.

Correlative Adverbs. 265. The questions how? how much.?^
how many? why? when? and where? are formed by interro-
gative pronouns with the most general words for manner,
place and time, and a mere particle for the rest.
^ |g n^' nung, how? ^ fll 'ki zz, lohenl

% 1^^ 'ki hoS hoio much? MM'^ '^U where?

„ how many? ^ ^ sa* su, „

P§ Pt sa' lau, why? Also ^ \^ tve' s^S ^ p§ 'yen sa*.

Obs. i. J£ow many parts in tenuis i ^ ^^ ^ ^ seh vun' 'li 'ki vun',

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P, II. S. IX. ADYBBBS OF QUANTITT, 139

*

The answer might he^Y ^^"^ ^^ ^ ^eh vun' *li 'yeu sa#t vun*, iltret
tenths. Questions and replies may be framed in the same way with any
numerals.

Obs. ii. For other examples, see section on pronouns, to which etymologi- ■
cally these words belong.

Obs. iii. Mow mtteh more used as a logieai partidej is expressed hy ^ ^ j^
Au hwong' ft,

266. The adverbs corresponding to the^e, thuSy however^
whenever, wherever are expressed in various ways,
fp ^ IB ^^ t^' liu^gj thuSy 5eh k6', ib,
19 'fil j^ IB zQe bien* n^* nung, lohich ever way you please.
^ St M fi^ veh lun* 'ki ho% however much.
^ ^ MM ^^^ ^^ '^ '^^> wherever you please.
H 8R IB ®£ JK IB y^^' ^^* nung dzieu' na' nung, hotoever
you loant itj it shall be so.

fS ^ IB ii ^ 3c P3 '^g^ ^^' ^^°g *s^* ^^^ y^^* mun*, do
not ask hoio I do it.

Obs. i. Other examples may be seen in the section on pronouns. The an-
swers to when? where? how many? will be found among the adverbs of time,
place and number. Why\ is answered by any direct statement, with or with-
out the'conj unction @ ® ynng w6'.

Obs. ii. Dzue biefj', veh lun*, veh kft, are properly verb combinations. They
mean following your convenience, without regarding, not constraining.

Quantity. 267. The forms for about^ enough^ much, lit*
tie, together, etc. are such as follow: —

a. About, is expressed by p6, kwong 'kiung, after their
word, and ydh, ^eu, before.
$5 ^ — * *§" y^h kwe ih p^h, about a hundred.
f^ j&> 15 ^ y^^ li^^j y^^ ^^h, both signify about.
I§ 1K M HF yah^su' 'ki 'hau, about how many?
M E '1^ P^> about ale. K E ^'^^ p6, about afoot.

^ E P^^ P^> cibout a step, -if g^ t'sun* p6, about an inch,
ii E '^ong p6, a buchet'ful. "^ ^ 'pun p6, about a volume.
^ ^£ E P^^* y^' P^> about midnight.
•^ ^ E P^^ ^'^^ P^> ^^^ arms length (t'ok, stretch out both
arms,)

^ II *§" ^eu ni* pah, about two hundred.

*5 ¥' ^ y^k pdh diew, about 100 cash.

^ ^ "^-Y yah '2/eu ni* seh, there are about 20.

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140 THS SHAKQHAI DIALECT.

-^ ^ ^ JSt il^ t'sfew kwoDfi: Tiiung, about 1,000.

Obs. A very common form is s ^ ^ t'so yeh tu, not far wronp, which
is used in the same sense as the above words.

b. Enough and not enough are expressed by keu*, veh tsoh,
veh kdn zz% k'ioh 'sau and some verbs with tie negative.

K !1, 5R 3^ * ten* 'li, kdn zz* HsS, enough.

^ ®> ^ ^ V veh keu'^eh kdn zzS not enough.

^ g V^^ '1^ ^'^ «« enough. ^ Jg veh ts6h, not enough.

^ PJ H + veh tau^ saw seh, no^ «o mawy as 30.

^ SI H + veh 'm^n sa;i seh, ib.

^ tft iJ^ i@ veh k'ioh 'sau ku*, not insufficient.

H i@ S fj? — g| ti* ku* '11 'sau ih diew, this is deficient one

cash.
H g *S ^ 11 it + iE «* law kioh 'tsz 'If k'ioh seh tsah,

this basket of oranges is ten short.

Obs. These words might be divided between adjectives and verbs, and no
place reserved for them here, were it not that their equivalents in English and
other languages are adverbs.

c. Much, more, many are all expressed by the adjective
^ tCi. If tu precedes it is more (adv.): if it follows its word,
it is much or many (adj.) Other words for more are jg lod^n,
jg yoh, and the verbs kd, f few, 'tiew, etc.

^ S^ ^ **i V^^ '^i^^j gi'^e more.

H S ^ ^ JllJr ^i' d«' 'mi tu ni* kiun, this bag of rice is
two catties more (or over).

A ^ <@ »i^^ ^^ ^^'i if^ ^en are many.

Mist ^ y^^ ^^ veh 'hau, much loorse.

JP lfe» Wi Ih k^ '^^^y t'le^ 'tiew, give more.

"— iK ^ JB it diew veh k&, 1 will not give one more cash.

^ H "^ 5 veh b^* ih pah, there are more than a hundreds

^ ^ M'^ veh bd% and more too.

^ MM^ ^ong diew wan yau*, / want m^re cash.

Obs. For examples of such forms as^f J^ 'hau 'ki, ^ fj^ tu hau', ma-
ny. See section on pronouns. The only words here adduced that can claim to
be adverbs are jSatUlmore, .ffi^ too, and traw J^. Too is an adverb in En-
glish, but its equivalent •& becomes by its position a conjunction, and wan
when it is not an adverb of time still, may often fairly be considered a con-
junction.

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p. II. S. IX. ADVERBS OF QUANTITY. 141

d. LesSyfexo are represented by >J? 'sau, standing before
its word, and by such borrowed phrases as ^h siau, not nt-
c^ssary^ less: 'yen 7ue7i* ku^,/ei(;, not much. t
ffi B ^ ?& 'li^ng nyih veh siau, in less than 2 days.

iJ^ P£ ifi 'sau k'iuh HieTi, eat less.
l^Wutk '^^^^ ^'^hi 'tie7^, take less^ subtract a little.
^ ^ M i^ ^^^ nung 'ka;^ 'sau, cannot take less.
A W IS i@ ^^^^ V^^ '*^^^^ ^^^y ^f ^^^ ^^^^^ are few.

e. A little, any^ are used sometimes adverbially in English.
Their representatives in our dialect are liak sti, 'sau wq^ sii
'sau with the auxiliary substantive forms ih 'ngaw, 'tien, etc.

M'M^^ ^^^^ s^ 'h'iau tub, knoio it a little.

^ ^ ?8 6 sti w?6 ming bah, understand it a little.

^ ^ tf # sti 'sau Hong tub, ib.

S ^ *B IS 'si sti ka 'tien, add a liUle.

^ iK ^ f@ 'sau we yau ku*, I want it a little.

^ >S 1K it IS 'sau w6 Uen' ni Hiew, a little cheaper.

ffll W — BR ^ ki^h 'y^^ ih ';iga7i sUn, my feet are a little tired.

W ifi t& f@ 'y^^ 'tien p'6* kuS Ae is a little afraid.

^- 2i5f SjS ih 'tie?i 'tienf a very little.

^ th Bf ft 'y^^ 'tie7^ sa du, lama little tired.

W SiS # IK V®^ '*i®^ ^^^ fiS can fly a little.

Obs. *Tiew, ih 'nga«, when they follow an adjective, while placing it in the
comparative degree, preserve their own sense a little; e. g. Jj* "^ BR ^ 1^
*hau ih *nga» tu zia*, a little better thank you; ^ ilS 1^ k'wk' 'tie« 'tseu, waih
a little faster.

/. Not very, very muchy too much are expressed by the
derivative adverb, veh da^ 'li, and the forms seh fun, seh ni*
fun, ku^ vunS t'uh ku* vun^

^ ':kM^ v^h da* 'li yau% he does not much want it.
^ diM. ^ "^^h dS.' 'li tu, not very many.
+ ^ ^ seh fun yau% toants it very much.
+ Zl ^ JS? soh ni* fun 'hau, very good.

g. Not at ally not in the least, are translated in several
ways.

~ ^ M H ih v(i ydng^ deu, of no use.
•^ ^ ^ JS vaw* vii 'hau t'saS of no use at all.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

1

142 THE SHANGHAI DIALEOT.

iBft ^ ^ J^ 8z Aau veh W not in the least agreeing.
HJl H^ j^ |lg 7/1 sd' sd du, not at all tired.

— gi ^ ^ ih 'ngaTi veh V 86, Just so, not at all wrong.

h. To altogether correspond l6ag 'tsong, ^ong* 'ts 6ng,
tseu sun, 'I6ng 't'6ng.
^ $B n IS* 46ng^ 'tsong nl^ pdh, i?i ail two hundred.

jft ^ M tfe *^^^ s^^ ''^^ ^^^S *'^ ^^^ ^^^ many?
^fx^M dzing* 2/^Dg veh 'hau, altogether wrong.

— ^ Jl ^ ih Vl^ mS,^ t(;67j, altogether sold off.
}|ll^ H II 'long 't'ong sail ma/i*, altogether 30,000.

i. Mostly, chiefly, are expressed by pronominal forms,
which have been already partially illustrated,
i;^ — ip M* ih p6n^, the greater part.
^ JL A ^ in ^^' v^^^ ^^^ '^^^ 'tong, men mostly do not

understand.
5^ JU "g^ ]J!J ^& k6 pilk sing*, most people.
i^ '^ A ffc 31 ^ IB ^ ^^* vaw niun seh ke 'siaku^ tu, most
persons write it thus.

JIIBSfillii^fS^ ^i' °^i°g ^^' ^^^ 'zz 'tau ku^ tu,

articles of this kind are mostly good..
Ife tt ir <H IB A ^ ^ 5i IS ^ k'iuh a p^iert yew ku* niun

veh lau zeh kii' tu, opium smokers are for the

most part dishonest.
j. Half is sometimes used in English as an adverb; so al-
so it is in Chinese, as in the following phrases.
^ 3C ^ ?S p6w' ^s! pen* t(;eh, half dead half alive.
^ IS ^ H P^^* '^^ P^^* tsun, half false half true.
^ ^ ^ SS P^*** *'^ P^^* ^S refuse and yet wish for.
i^ ^ i^ Q£ p6n* t'un p6n* t\l% cease from saying a thing when

half through it.
Obs. The other proportional parts, such as P9 ^ ^ — * ^ sz' vun* 1i
ih TunS « quarter; 'y ^ ^ "^ ^ jeh yun* *li ih vun*, one tenths are much
too long to enter into such groups.

k. Only, alone are represented by tseli, tok, tan, fan*, and
forms into which they enter.
M ^ *^ 81 te^l^ *^^ ^ '^S^f only a little^
IH -^ ^ t6k ih kfim, onZ^ one.

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p. II. S. IX. ADVERBS OF NEGATION. 143

m 3B iP^ok ktn 'tsz, alone,

^ iS •^ f@ veh dan^ ih ka^, 7iot only one.

Il ^ M i@ A vi' doh 'Mng kd' niun, only two men.

^ M &^^ M ^^^ ^^^ *s2 ih ku*, not only one.

•^ jf^ ^ ih ktin 'tsz, alone.

H H -* ^ ta^ ta?^ ih ku% a si7igr?e one.

;|; jg — fg pih {sHwuld he peh) ku' ih kti*, on?y o/ie.

^ ® !S 3S # iSt ^^^ doh li 'ngu wh^ tsii% only I can do it.

Obs. i. Ta«, is also an acyective, as in the question, ^ $ f@ B& il {@
hwo taw ku' ni song ku*, w theftowei' single or double? Toh and <a«' are both
conjunctions, when joined to 'zz, as jS ;§» ^ 5^ ^a«' 'zz, toh 'zz, huU

Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs once^ twice ^ etc. translated by •— * \j^ ih t'sz',
etc. may be seen in section 4. On auxiliary substantives. Art. 163.

Negative and Affirmative. 268. One of the most com-
moQ negative particles is fM|E tw, to which g[ meh, the same in
meaning is frequently appended, f^l m is properly a verb not
to have»

1^ [^ ^ H m sd.^ zz* 't'l, it is nothing.
1% ^ PJI jj^ m yung m tsong, there is no trace of him,
V%^V^ fS M^ meh s5.' too^ deu, there is nothing to say.
I^ g pft j^ m yen m lu% having no grief or care.

269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is
fBL vu, which is also in common use in colloquial phrases de-
rived from the books or formed on book models.
^ ^ |D| ^ vil dze vu sz*, having no riches or influence.
^ ^ ||5| j^ vu t*sing vu t'sih, having no relations, [mer.
Ijt ^ lUl g vu tong vu 'ya, having neither winter nor sum-

270 The negative particle in most general use is^ veh.
It is not prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like
^ peh in mandarin.

^ "^ M B veh w6^ du^ iiyih, I cannot live on.
^ H ^ E9 veh saw veh sz', neither this nor that.
^ IS^ ^ ^ vqh siing veh 'h'iang, he said nothing.
^ Mttj^ veh tsie^i' 'la n6ng% / shall not recommend him

to you.

^ M}^ Wi ^^^ '^} ^^^ ^*^S *^ ^'^ ^^^ ^^ (^^ ^^^ alone).

Digitized by LjOOQIC

144 TflJB SUANOHAI DIAUBCT.

271. The particles H v!, y^ peh and ^ ft, are used in a
few combinations.

fg ^ vf fl6h^ onhj.

1i fS -" A v^ '^gu ill zun, OTzZy /.

•P jfc — A P^t 't-sz ih zun, not one man onhj.

•P ^ HF i^ peh tsz 'yi loh, do not know where he is.

BR ^, 16 ^ 'ngaTi peh nung kien^, not to be seen.

^ $5 i: fS ft dok tsz 'ngu, not onhj L

272. The simplest aflBrmative is;g '^; certain auxiliary
particles are often appended or prefixed.

•H f@* ® ^ iB '2Z kuS 'zz 'la ku% it is so.
®E S, Ji: ^ dzieu* 'zz, 'zz 'tse, iJ.

273. When some quality is aflfirmed, an adjective of oppo-
site meaniDg, with the negative particle prefixed, is often em-
ployed.

^ 1^ veh k'ieu, tJiat is good.

ISI ^ S 'tau veh t6% lid that is vrrong.

^ ^ veh t'so, you are right.

274 The emphasis of pc-sitive certainty is conveyed by
phrases such as 'tsun tsung% «eh z6^, etc., and the double ne-
gation m ^ prefixed to the proposition affirmed.
W iE Wl i5 ^sun tsung* m meh, certainly there is none.
§ ^ :^ 'g' gj pih kiung^ veh zung tau*, certainly he has
not come.

3ff 'iSE W 1H ^^ ^^^ V®^ ^^^i there certainly is.

Bf ^ ^ ^ IS ^^' ^^^^ ^ '^^ ^^S ^^ certahily is so.

^ ^ ^ H '^^ z^Ti veh t'so, it is certainly right

■ Obs. The interrogatiTe final md, is often used to express the same sense

with these words, >J> S §1 iSl '^^^^ ^^ °^^ °^^> ^ %« <^ *t^ indeed.

275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity
(must)y and with the negative, the absence of that necessity
(need not).

Sfe ^ W i® 2^ 'tsong 'yen ku*, there must l>ejire wood.
m ^, — ^ ;g' niung 'tsz ih ding^ '^eu, there must be silver.
H ^ I? ^ iH 'tsong yau* 'ka seh k6*, you must explain it.
iJJi ^ 5^ ^ pUi ding' yau* k'i*, you must go.

*

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. 11. S. IX. ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION. 145

iR&^^^ 'pa^ ding* yau* le 'ts^, he must necessarily

com'i.
iR^M M 'P^^ y^^^ *su* ku' you must do it.
^ 15 W S # '^^^ tsong 'yeu 'zen pau*, virtue will surely

have a good reward.
M&MM^M ib tsu' sang i« 'tsong yau yfing* sing, in
transacting business you must apply the mind,

276. There are several phrases to express that the thing
aflfirmed is natui*ally so, and that nothihg>elaa ought to be ex-
pected. ^ '^'.^}V' 1

^ 2j£ fi* HlB 'P^^ le 5eh k6* cAjig, it^ is. ofiginally so.
^M^U ^^^ 'P^^ '^IpP 21Z' kl'^ii^ Je, he originally

wished to comXimself. \ \^\
g ^ ^ Z2' z6u 'tse, as ruOKithe expected.: * **\
g ^ lU ^ zz* zew rh ^gf spontaneously,
@l 2jJ 1^ 1^ nio7i le "ff^Mft it is really nothing. .^ '.\
i ^ ^ ^ "& 'p uj | P se w veh 'k'ung, iy nature UTmUUng,
S >& >^ is ■? ^mH li^°g sing 'pun 'ti Hsz 'yeu kQ*, cqw-

SfJKice belongs to us by nature,

277. Differeiit words are usually appropriated to the affir-
mative and neg9.tive forms of assertions. Thus (I) absolute
certainty in the negative is expressed by, —

^ ^ S jpi^g' veh 'zz, certainly it is |lo^.

?fc ^ # fifc kioh veh 'hau tsu', it ougfd surely not to be done.

% ^ RT £1 *'sih veh 'k'6 'i, yoti certcknly may not,

(2), The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such
expressions as the following.
^ i& # ^ veh pih tuh k'i', you need not go,
^ i& ^ veh pih tu, do not need many,

Obs. The Imperative also, as in ^ ^ -^ veh yau' k'i', do not go; ^
5^ ^ k'i* meh 'ts6, go^ has distinct auxiliary words for the affirmative and
negative forms.

278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affir-
mative and negative propositions in the interrogative form.
'^^ &MM 't'l veh 'zz 'ting 'hau, how is it not admirable?
li ^ ili ;^ R # fS ^^^ d^^^ nong' veh 'h'iau tuh 'ngu, it

can hardly be that you do not knoto me.

Digitized by VjC)OQIC

146 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

W H& ^ li ^ V^u sa* veh suh zz^ lohy should I not know
Jioiv to read?

Obs. i. The final interrogative J^ mau, or 56 ni, is appended frequently
to any sentences of this sort.

Obs. ii. Affirmative questions implying a strong denial are also occasionally

asked by these particles/ e. g. ;^ -^ jifc 3 'k'i '^u'Vsz Ti, how can this bet

SI JE fS P^ ® iM S na?j dau' 'ngu hong' p'iew' nong* 'va, eoitld I dcee've'
you?

Adverbs of place. 279. Demonstrative adverbs are derived
from pronouns, as adverbs of manner from adjectives. Thus
here and there, are translated by compounds formed from the
three pronouns ^i*, ku% f.

^ ^, m ^, ^ m, «^ WweSs/V tah, tV deu, here.
Wc^ytk^. WC Blvtu^ kVeS kfl* tah, kiV deu, there.
P^lP^y l*/BI» 1 k'weS I tai(/4 deu, there.

Obs. From ^ 't'sz is formed jlfc }|fc 't'sz'df(, het^e; ^ tong, also forms tV
dong, h^re^ etc. jt

280. On this, and o?i ^/^a^ side are lormed in a similar
manner with the auxiliaries mie?i*, /ace, and pie^i, stcZe.

H ffi> SI ^j ^^* mie?i*, fi' p!e7^, on this side:^
%^^tV ^^n' ba7^, ih.

■flfc M, iSfc ^> ku' mieii', kfl* piew, o^i ^/m^ «ic?e.
]gJi; ip -^, ^ ^ ^, ka* peTJ* ba?i, i peTi* ba^^, ib.
'fi^ ffi> ^ ^> 1 mie?i*, i pie7i, ib.

281. The postpositions or case particles corresi>onding to
our locative prepositions enter into similar forms.

Jt ffi> Jl SM 'zong miew.*, 'zong deu, above.
Jt ^, J: ^ tI 'zong ple^i, 'zong pe^i' ban, on the upper side.
Jt #; Jt Mj Jt l£ 5S 'zong 'seu, 'zong kie^i, 'zong *ti deu, on
the upper side. *

fit ®> U Si> It i&j zicTi mie^iS ziCTi deu, zicTi 't!, 6e/bre.
^ M> ^ SI, ^ #' /<^eu mie7i% 7^eu deu, *Aeu 'seu, behind^
^ Mi^ M IS, ''^6^ 't^ '^^^^1 '^^ deu, behind.
M 51, i M?i ffi/li d^^' '1^ sz, ai mien*, inside.
KlSl,3IIS,'lih'iaDgS'lipie7. i6.

^ #: :^ 'li pen* ba7i, ib.

Obs. i. TP 'an forms the same compounds as Jl 'zong, with one other

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. IX, ADVERBS OF PLACE, l47

r IS 'au 'ti, all of them with the sense below, ^ nga', forms the same
compounds as ^ 'li (excepting that with |flj h'iang'), in the sense of outside.
Obs. ii. For similar gioups of nouns, with the points of the Compass, see
Art. 152.

182. The adjectives 'tsu yexi\ right and left^ from some
groups,

^ i§? ^ ^ tIj y^^^ piew, yeu* -pen^ hsLU, on the right hand.
& 3&f & ^ y\f *si^ (u) piew, tsi* pew* ban, on the left hand.

283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are
few.

si. @j ffl 3® @, tseu w6j sz* tseu ive^ all found,
^ 41 tong tsong, in the middle.
g 41 k'ong ts6ng, in the air.
^ Jit ^ trang 'tu 'li, ohliquely.

0^ ^ dz&k kok, obliquely. ^ ]j|[ t6' dzuh, straight before.
MMMM^'^ '1^, '^ 'IJ dong, where?
# J^j J^ ^» ill J^» J^ok t'suS t'stl' t'saS tau* t'sa*, every-
where.', .-•^- •
^ 5J 5^ J^ kok tau'lok t'sii^ every-where.

284. JTSng and *zu form with verbs many groups of four
characters, in which the action is said to be done in various
ways,, literally across and perpendicularly.

jgl IHj; ^ ^ te;ang tsu' 'zQ tsu*, do this and that.
^ ^ S ^ ^ ^ w;&ng veh 'zz, 'zu veh 'zz, lorong in this
and in that,
Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is ^ SU? u' so, the other 1^ t^ kiung,
s6^ here ti* is used for wei i^

285. The adverbs in and out, upand down, here and there^
etc. are translated in Chinese by repeated verbs. ^

fH'il SI Hi ^1 tsing' ft t'&eh, Jly in and out.

i^ Jl ij^ T t'iau' 'zong t'iau' 'an, jump up and down.

^ jjc ^ .^ ya,u le yau k'i*, roto about.

Adverbs of time. 286. The following are the primitive ad-
verbs of time employed in the dialect,

-g* zung, already; ^ ^ veh zung, not yet.

IrJ h'itlng^, -^ |pj ihh'iang'jM/ier^o; (it embraces the whole
of the past time), (nj ^ h'iang' 1^, ^ f^, h'iang* i\ ib.

Digitized by Lj-OOQIC

^

148 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

G, 'i, already; e. g. g, © 'I kiung, already.

H^ zohj[z6h, zog), infl^ B zoh nyih, yesterday.

% slew J first; ^ i@ ^ ^ ® <i* ku' sien yau* tsu% this
must he done first.

H jjau*, a^/r«^; e. g. ^ ^ ^au* zz, ai first; H ^ ^ i>au'
zz kari, z&.

fl ii*, beforehand; !S ^ g§ ^ ti' sfen bong b6S jtwirci
against he/or eh<ind. (^ guard against; u.fang; S. R. vowgr),

5gi t'su, at first J is only found as an adverb in the phrase
^ ygl tong t'Biif formerly,
^ kiun, woti;; e. g. ^ mok kiun, ^ ^ k'uk kiun, g ^

Ale»* kiun, now; ^ ^ kiun tsau, to-day; ^ kiun nyih,
i6.; ^ ^ kiun nidh, this month; ^ £f kiun niew, this year

in nan, now; ^tSC ^ '^^^ ku^ h'ih, at the present moment;.
MM ^ na?i dzau 'exxfrom this time forward; |8 T 2}J ^*^
'au le, i6.; m J^ nan meh, <Aen.

JE tsung', (or f^ 't8ung)yt*^^; jE 1i( ^ tsung' leh 'l&,just
while; ^^ jE t'ih (or t'eh) tsung^, Just at the moment.

if Aien' now; 1% :^ Aien* dz6*, now; J|, ^ Aien* zz, ib.

§ dzan^, temporarily; e. g, § gf dzan' zz, /or a short
time; § ^ dzan* w\ ib.

jd tsiang, aJot*^ to be; ^ JjE tsi5.ng 16, i/ w^tZZ happen that.

^ tsiuk (tsih)yi«^; |g |p zQe iSiX}k,just; ||| ^ tsihk'uh,
ib.; iP fi^ tsih k'anS ib.

H tse*, again; H ^ ts^^'iM;^*, «?e sAaZZ mee^ again.

Ig k'an >5^; Ifif ig k'an k'an ti.; ift fe ii& k'an 'k*i 'sz,
at the beginning.

3t /% again; %^ ^ I'l^ 'tse, come agratn.

j5 tran, still; >§ H 3|S «^an yau* 1^, come again.

"gt dzieu*, immediately; ®£ IK ^ dzieu* 'ts6n le, retui-n
directly; jgt jft dzieil 't'sz, immediately.

— ih followed by ®E dzieu* ^Ae moment thai; — Bfi ®E ft
ih k'wun* dzieu* kau*, the moment he went to sleep he awoke.

Obs. i. Of these words, only HI, f^y |f, X, >§> ®E» nan, tsiang, ts^S
i*, tra«, dzieu*, are separable from the groups in which they are found, y^
as in ^ IS mi' 1i, **ot yet^ is a negative adverb of time.

Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except /wiuS na«, and k'an.

Digitized by ^OQQIC

•4

p. n. S. IX, ADVERBS OF TIME. 149

287, The demonstrative pronouns ^, ^, ft, <iS i, ku^,
and some other words combine with the substantives gj[, ^,
J^ h'ih, k'uh, zz, a short tirm^ to form adverbs of time.

II &j[ ft &)[ rf' ^'ih, ku^ h'ih, at this moment.
ft fik ® 4l kii^ h'ih deu long*, at that titae.
# Si ffl ± i li'ili deu longS ih.

•^ fl# 18 Jt ill zz deu lofig^, all at once.
jir glj lih k'uh, immediately.
:& ^ A ^Jj lili zz lih k'uh, i6.
A ^ H ^J lib zz saw k'uh, ib.

SJt h'ih, also helps to form %^\ik h'ih, ^ gj zong h'ih,
o/ier a little time] ^ ^ 'sau h'ih, il).

288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to
form compound adverbs of time.

a. 59 ^^Sj bright. PQ ig} ^ing ^^^^ to-morrow; t^ H
ming nyih, ^6.; ^ 5c mienfierj, i6,; 51 ^ niiiig nfe?i, wea;^
year.

6. ^ 'tsau, eaWy; .^ ^ 'tsau 'tsau, early; ^ ^ 'lau
'tsau, early.

c. tS" 'kfl anctew^. T^ flf ^ 'ku zz kaw, iii ancient times;
Tfr ^ 81 'ku zz tsih, ifc.; •jS' ^ 'ku U^from ancient times.

d. if sing, T^ew;, if ^ sing niew, new; year; ^ if dz6ng
sing, afresh.

e. 5£ 'Hun wear, j^ ^ 'Hun niew, o/Za^e years; ^ fl|
iiun zz, lately; ^ ^ 'ki\m 16,^6,; ift ^ Vdun kiun, i6.; Jjc
•|ft 'iiun sz*, iw modern timts. '

/. ii 'ikieu, old. S ^ '^^^^^ °^^^ '^^^ 2^^^^^ t5 S zung
'gieu, as before; M ^ tsau' 'gieu, ift.; iK # i' 'gieu, ib.

g. % dz^ng, constant. % j£ dz^ng tsong, ff ^ 'tang
dz^g, ^ % dzdng dzang, ;f; 1^ peh dzdng, always; % fl|
dz&ng zz, sometimes-. ^ nyih dz^ng, daily.

h. IJ ziew, former. IJ H •?. z^e?i nyih 'tsz, day before
yesterday ; g U mdh ziew, wot^; ; "U ^ ziew nieri j^ear 6e-
fore last;%'^ dzongzimy formerly ; ^ IJ 'i ziew, before;
llr f^ ziew de% the former dynasty ; U ^ ziew zau, ib.;
jj ift ziew sz*, in a former life.

i. ^ -Aeu, after. ^ JJS V^eu le, J[U ^ 'i AeuS after;

Digitized by LjOOQIC

150 THB SHANGHAI DUL£CT.

^ ^ 'hen nidh, next month; H if 'Aeu nfe», year after next;
^ 'hen nyih, day after to-morrow.

J. ^ 'Aau, f mdh 'Aan, a^ present.

k. ^iCL, B $ Djih tu, claiVy.

Obs. ZieM deu, 'hen deu, ^ar», a/jf#r, and the oognafce adverbs of place nifi
used also for time.

289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English
are adverbs. They are Jjj, Jft, ft, R| 16, ka*, h'ih, k&h.

S TS" JSl 2jS zz* 'kfi 'i 1^,/rom ancient times tUl now.

H ® £1 i Tseu dzau 'i 16, from the Gheu dynasty tiU

now.
9k i^W B h'ih tsz 'liang nyih, q/5fer two days.
fH i2l jft + ^ ^^^ *sz 'ki zeh nlen, o/Zer several tens of

years.

M3k^^ M *8^* k^* ^ ^^h> ^^ another month.

290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whoie
etymology is uncertain, or at least not referable to words oi
time.

f^ {8 tsok (kwa»*) kCiTi*, constantly {in tJie habit of).
P^ ^ tseh 'kwe», ib. or my only concern is^ etc. (m.)
J^ HtU &M '^^^S ^^^ ^^S ^^> suddenly.
1(1 ;K i^^^ 'P^^> seldom (d^cult to fix).

291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of
time to form common phrases, which are often used as ad-
verbs.

^ ta, several ; ^ % td h'ih, after a little time ; $ B ti
nyih, after sows days; ^ if td niew, after some years]

nerally pronounced t^.)

^ 'ki, several] j£ ^ Q lien 'kl nyih, during several days.

% tu, many] ^ ^ k^* tii, mutually.

g dzoh, each] H jS ^P^ Azoh^ daily] JS i& S Si& ^ <izok
'tlcT^ dzok ^iien kau, gradually grounng higher.

292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.
nyih nyih, daily. ^ if. nien niew, yearly.

B# B# ^»I ^ zz zz k'uh k'uh, constantly.
JDC Ifc h'ih h'ih, /&.

^ ^ ta zz, a considerable time (^ tu in this sense is ge-

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. IX. REPErinON OF ADVERBS. 15l

ffi ffi ^> m m ^ t'seh t'seh pSeii-S wii wk pien*, constant-
ly changmff^
Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by repetition

of a noun with an adrerb inserted. Tbvts, day hy day corresponds to B B

nyih nyih. Such phrases as year after year^ one after another are other examples,

And have their Chinese equivalents in the next article.

Order and Succession. 293. Succession of periods of time
is lepresented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb
^ ku% pass (English adverb after).

— ift ^ — iS ih sz* ku* ih sz^, age after age.

294. The particles and, after, hy, in one by one, tivo and
tivo, in rotvs, etc. are not represented, succession being exr
pressed by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.

— i@ — i@ Hi •* ^ ib ka^ ih ku* t'seh k'i' 'ts^, one af-
ter another they went out.

HSiS — fr — ftiS yau' ts6ng* ku* ih ^ong ih hong
kii*, plant them in rows.

Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as j^ -** ift
dzan' ih dza^i', stand waiting a little ; ^ "^ W niew ih nien, rttb a Utile ink;
^ fB ^ 'lancr ku' 'lang, cool H a little ;M H^ M diau ku' diau, stir it a
little ; i^ iH !i0 dau ku' dau, wash it (of rice) ; ^ f0 ^ zing' ku' zing',
wath it (of clothes) ; f^ H ^ i@ H }f| ^ 'ngu yau' bie«' ku' bie«' t^ing
'song, lioiih to distinguish clearly ; see aJso Art, 232.

295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by
repeating the auxiliary phrases ih 'ngan, ih ^Hen, with the
adjective in the centre. When the gradual change is in time,
words of time form similar phrases,

*^ BK 1© TT 8ft il^ 'nga7^ kau ih 'nga^, to become gradually

higher.
•^ S5 :^ -^ iS it '*i6^ da^ ih 'tlew, grow gradually greater.

— -De :^ — " ffit ill ^'^^ d<i^ ih h'ih, greater every moment.
^^ >J> '^ B it nyih 'siau ih nyih, grows less every day.

296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other
words. Thus, the adverb when is often supplied by a noun of
time following the verb with the connecting particle f@ ku'.
^ M M % kau^ ku' zun kwong, when you awahe.

m P9 IB B# 1SI *'s^t mun ku* zz Aeu*, token on a journey,
297. 'Never, is expressed by — (pj ih li'Iang^, with a ne-

Digitized by LjOOQIC

152 THS UANGHAI DIALECT.

gatire phrase following it.

•^ Ifll ^ '8' Bl fF il^ h'iftng* veh zung <6k sO, / have never

gone to school,

298. The questions why ? and how ? are often asked by
verbs with the pronoun what f thus rendering an adverb un-
necessary.

B^ B 2© at Pt ^ 3U z<^t nyih 'si&ng s4* lau veh 1^, why
{thinking of what) did you not come yesterday?

B ± It Pt iil ^ IB t'ing tsz 8&' lau 'hlau tuh kuS how
{having heard what) do you hnowf

Adverha of Similarity and Reciprocity. 299. The adverb
f^ hah, and adjective ^ w^ng*, KAe, assist in forming sever-
al compound phrases in the senae like.
tfr fll hah zi&ngS f^ ^ hah t'l^ like.
jtf fli hau zi&ng*, very like.

td^ ^ >J> S 16 ffl tat tuh 'siau n5» nung kdS ZtAre a child.
\% ft 'tau zi^ng*, or rather it is like.

Obs. '^ nung, is usually appended to the noun that fbllows these words,
in the sense of like; — ||| ih yani»S "^ jlS ih p6ii, are also thus employed m
the sense in the same manner,

300. The adverbs of reciprocity are ^fi ^ tA' k&S ^ M t^*
^f ^ 5 k^* tQ, mutually^ one to [another, and 4B in com-
bination with verbs and adjectives; e. g. si&ng zidng', 4B ft
?»fc o»6 another.

Obs. T()^^A^ tc^YA, is expressed by means of certain adverbs ^^ t& ihdau,
^^ 3R ih k'i*, following the preposition and its noun. iS^ ^ ^^ ^ JH ^
Veh 'ngu ih kl' tsing' zung, ffo with me into the city, Y. Art. 140.

301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one
or two instances. It is different with those that are derived.
Some examples in addition to those already given are here
appended.

& & ^£ ^£ zz* zz* 'z6 'z6, ai ease.
J5 ^ ?S 65 '^^^ ^^^ '^^^ *it> constantly moving.
frlS ft 16 seh k€' seh keS thus.
^M^MMM ^^^ ^^^ i* iS comfortably.

Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time,
become adverbs by repetition.

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p. II. S. IX. REPETITION OF ADVEBBS. 153

302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as
to form compound adverbs.

ta k^, add, forms yok k^, j^ Jp ; f k^y%M'y ^^S' ki,
jl M ^^*^^ mo7*e.

^ fah, produce, forms j^ |g yoh fahj still more.

1^ zue, folloiv, ^ fli zue zz, ahvays ; ^ M ^^^ ^'s^S

303. It wiU be seen in the .next section, that some words
marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is ajso
true. For some words, such as jQ, jg^, ^ j/oh, 't'sie, zCi
regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, forna* ad-
verbial phrases.

^ 3l ^ M pi^S^ 't'sie veh 'zz, it certainly is not so.
2Sn 1^ ^ ^ 16 2a dong throng tV nung, like the emperor.

304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying
verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most
part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify
adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our
own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e. g«
assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are
primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western
grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus
appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been
often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological
development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The
Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative
pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the
Chinese, (e. g. hie here, supra above, etc.) Adjectives with
particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner,
(cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive
adverbs of time, while the root sta stand, in statim, exactly
corresponds to ^ lih, stand, in jj[ ^ lih k'uh, immediately.
It may be added that z^n, hu, etc. in Art. 259. form appendages
to the root, of the same value as the terminations -ly,'like, to
which we are accustomed. What is new, is. the extensive
use of repetition"^, the great number of fixed phrases, and the
peculiarities in the laws of grouping.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

IM THE SHAHiOAI DIALECT.

Section 10, Conjunctions.
305. The primitive conjunetionB may be thus classed:—*
o. ConnectiFes, fg^ Ian, 4 'd, and ; S. 't'si^, ^ rh, ondf,
further.

b. Adversatives fB dan*. Forms like <ft Jg dan* 'zi ^
ig Wh 'zz, but^ etc. are compounded of adverbs, verbs, etc.

c. Illative ft kuS H k6* (keh), therefore.

d. Causal, g yung, Jf tr^*, because.

e. Conditional. Jfj meh, ^ z^h, || 'fong.

/. Antithetical, |t sue, ^ z^, ^ u?6h, jg yoh, -fc '4, X ^

Obs. The compounds formed by these words, and words and phrases used
as conjunctions derived from other parts of speech, will most of tbem be
fomid in tJhe following articles.

Connectives. 306. The particle that connects words like
the English and^ is p^ lau.
* j^ P£ tij tsing* lau t'seh, ^oin^ in and out. .

Xj^ 4* ft i^ 3i^ 1^ ^ ts6ng s^Tig lau 'tiau lau ng, beasts^ bird,

1 and fishes.

* Obs. The prepositions tab, t'eh, im^A, often serve the same purpose, e. g.

'ft i^ fS Dong' t'eh ^Dgn, you und I : B M.^ i. R ^t^ deu tab tsz
Hioh, the tun and moon.

307. * Clauses are connected by jji 'd and jg w;an. They
are also frequently used merely as introductorv particles.

It M * a i: *. ^ -& ^ ± «: M * Ne;. kiung k'i^ kQ*

tsz meh, 'ngu 'd yau* 'zong Poh kiung k'i', after going

to Nanlcing, I also wish to go to Peking.
W 19 fS -fc ^ ^ -i iiiiDg tsau 'ngu 'a yau^ ku k'iS to-

morrow^ I wish to go home, (introductory).
^ S S 5 '^ yau* 'md Va^ do you wish to buy ?

Obs. i. If the '<£ or wdn is emphasized it means alto. If pronounced with-
out emphasis, it is simply introductory.

Obs. ii. The adverbs dzieu', nioti, are used as introductory particles to
affirmative propositions : ]^ 7£ ^ dzieu' *zz 'ugu, W* '^^& J^ofi 'zz 'ngtl
ititl.

308. Another circumstance to be considered, in addition
to what has preceded, is introduced by U J[ rh 't'si^, and

furtlier f§ ^ zong* 't'sia, and what is still more.

4- ®I K ^ » i^ fli IB fi fS W 1^ ^ f I kiun teau la ' veh

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p. II, S. X. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, 155

'hau pan* kfi^ rh 't'sia 'ngu ki4h pan* veh 'dang, it is had
tvalking to-day , and besides I am lame.

w6^ zoh nyih 16, zoDg' 't'si^ veh zung l6, a friend told me
he would come yesterday, and still he has not yet come*
(adverbial).

deu tsia* ka' h'ih dong dieTi, rh't'si^ veh zung wd^n 'li, nan

V yau^ tsi^^ 'va, you borrowed money before, and further
you have not returned it, and do you wish to borrow again t

(adverbial).
bJC SR M JH i¥ 'sz sun rh 't'sia w\m^ the water is deep and

also muddy.

309. A new subject of remark is introduced by !g ^ ts^*
'ts6, again, to proceed; j§ ^ wan 'yen, there is another
thing; 8B ^ ^ © 'a li 'h'iau tub, meantime; who could have
thought it? strange to say!

*EilM^iK.S«P*«S-M t'oh n6ng' 'mk zz kfl,

ts6' 'tse kiau* zew ih tsah, I commission you to buy fruit,

and also to call a boat.

^ ;^ ^ ;^ qp: g wan 'yen ih ^^ng^ zz' H'l, there is an-

other thing I have to say.

Adversatives, 310. But is represented by {g tm', {g g
tan^zz, ^ ^ toh (g) 'zz; however is ^ jg tau* 'ti, or §(g ^
kieu' kiung*.

» IS J* IS, ffl :! ^ S fi 1^ ^ s^^ ^^' '^^^ *'^^°g» ^^^'
'zz HsiU li m sa^ 'hau, his words are plausible, but his

doctrine bad^

JH£ 5t ^ jS ^J i£ H 5i ii IB '^^^^^ 2^' ^^^ ^^^ '^'^ *^^'

'ti yau* toan nong* ku*, / cannot pay you now, but I in-^
tend to do so in the end. (adverbial).

Obs. Of these words, tau' 'ti is the most common. It sometunes preserves
itfi etymotog^cal meaning in the endy as in the example given.

311. Lest is expressed by ^ fS dzang p'6^ The com-
pounded phrase J» ffi *^^ P'^^ ^ ^^ ^^^V ^A^**^ ^*^^, ^^
oome to mean / suppose that.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

156 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

5*Tfi»iE^lRteilP$ yau* 'tong 1 tsAh 'keu dzftng p'6*
yau* 'ngau, heat that dog lest he should lite.

6^ IB IS 5^ -P^ t& dt IB i ku* 'w6' deu tseh p'6* h'u kuS
^/ta# account is I suppose false, (or Jgji f^ 'k'ung p*6*).

Obs. JS t6 'k'ung p'6* is I fear tliat; ^ t6 tseh p'6* has sometimes a
similar meaning. jS E 3j^ S.M tfi SI SI J21 ^ tung yong* le 'si-
tseh p'6* t'ong* uo.' tsz 'sen, the lamp is very hoi (bright) I fear it wiU hum y&nr
hand,

312. The conj unctional phrases and yet, on the other Jiandy
are expressed by ^ 'tau and {g p'iew-, pepveTsely.
iEfa*llP4'<iil,<i1S«i4»JAi»i«ku'zzTikau'

nong* tsu', nong^ 'tau peh 'lA bih niun tsuS I called you to
do this, and yet you have given it to some one else to do.
tf P\U ^ M '^»g 1 '*au veh t*6Dg*, he is heaten and yet
feels no pain.

Ift ii ^ ig ^ # i? k'ion' n6Dg* 'hau p'ie» veh 'k'ung 'hau,
when exhorted to he good, you on the other hand will not.

313. Such conjunctional phrases as it would he hetter to,
are represented by ^ jp veh zCi, not so good as, or ^ "pjf
niung 'k'6, I ivould rather, ^ Jfc veh 'pi, it cannot he com-
pared with.

^ ftl tt * M J?^ veh za 'ts6» k'i* kung' 'hau, it would he
hetter to go hack.

H^ 1^ ^ Jfc IIH ^6h veh z6h veh 'p! ts6' doh, not hav-
ing learned it perfectly, it ivould he hetter to study it
again.

S :>: #: rT 3E ^ iSt oh zz* niung 'k'a 'si veh tsu^ I would
rather die than do tohat is wrong.

Illative or Transitional Gonjuntions. 314. Tliercfore is
represented by g(f £Jt 'su % ^ ^ ku^ 't'sz, jjt J^r £i ku' 'su
"^,11^8^ keh lau.
i6^^*SlBliftiftX2jJ sing 'li veh mong« ki* n6ng%

ku' 't'sz i' le, I have not forgotten you, and therefore have

come again.

315. Then, is expressed by ^ 5^ k6^ (keh) meh, when it
denotes a logical consequence, and -by ^ ^ naw meh, when
the transition is one of time.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. X, CONDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS. 157

li If li ^ H, # 5^ S »& peh 'la nong* vah yaii', W meh
yau' saS / give it and you do not ivant it, then what do
you IV ant 'f

il±^aii5^i?^ 'tong tsz 'dau 'li nan meh 'liau 'ts6,
the doctrine being understood, then all is well,
Obs. Na« meh, has also been placed among the adverbs as a particle of

time. Its.book equivalent is J^ ^ u 'zz, cmisequenUy.

Causal Conjunctions, 316. ^ 2/iing «^;e*, ^ w^^ and
^ ;^ w^*^ tsz correspond to our word because.

Conditional pcSfticles. 317* 5^ meh, if, is placed at the
end of the clause.
M^^M^'M^^^M '^iang (zicTiO meh yau^ 'ma, ku*

meh veh yau* 'ma if it is cheap buy it, but not if it is dear.

318. ^ ^ zak 8ZS ^ ^ zog 'zz ^ ^ zog z^n, \^ ^
't'ong t^oh, fjp^ ^ 't'ong sz', fj^ f^ 't'ong ze/j, are used in the
sense of if : IJE ^ ki' zcti is if it was already so.

^ ® ^ '* £ 5^. i^ Si 3$S zak sz^ veh k'on' kien' meh, dzieu'
klile, if you do not see him, return at once.

Obs. The verbs ^ , :§;? and adverb f^ lose their primary sense, and form
in colloquial usage merely a terminating syllable to the conjunction with
which they combine.'

319. Uven if is expressed hjM^ dzieu^ 'zz, j^l tS '^ P'^S
iSKtS'^'lip'o^

Wt^^^i^^ ^M^ dzieu' 'zz gi k'oh, 'a veh yau bing
gi, even if he cries, do uot yield to him,

^'^m%nm..M^^^% A^'^ V'o' m meh dong
dien, 'tsong veh 'hau k'i* t'eu niun k^, even if you have
no money, you must not steal from others,

320. If, with the negative is represented by ^ ^ veh z^n,
or H ^ ^ tse^ veh ze/i, should it not be so,

t^ liS ^I'if fS, ^ ^ fS H * ^ k'wa 'tie?i peh 'la 'ngu,
veh Zen 'ngu yau' k'i' 'tse. If you do not give it me
quickly, I shall go.

H ^ ^ ^ & ^ ^ ^^^' ^^^ ^^^ '^o'^i zz' ka k'i% if it is not
so, I shall go myself

Obs. This amounts to an entire omission of the if, foY'j^ 7An is an adverb
90. In fact, the if is often not used in affirmative sentences as well as negative •

Digitized by LjOOQIC

158 THE SHANOHAl DULECT.

32 1 . The conj unctional phrases suppose that ^ for instance,
for example, are expressed by Jfc :§' 'pf fong, i^ f^ p'l* zQ,
® in yeu zG, etc.
it ::^ 5E i: ^ 8B 16 'P^ foDg 'si tsz meh n^' nung, if you

should die, ivhat then?
?S ± -^ yeu tsz hujjust as if. S| fa yen zQ. ib.

Obs. The_ adverbs of likeness (see Art. 299) are also similarly employed
i? «i B SI ES iff, BR Bt ^ if 3» i: e^ im « liau ziang'nyih
deu full yongS 'nga« tsing veh 'hau W tsz i lau k'on, Jmi as the sun is too bright
for our eyes to gaze on him.

Antithetical Conjunctions. 322. Clauses with the parti-
cles although^ yet, are fonned by H ^ s(ie zew and jg| U
zeii rh, etc.
SI ^ 35 j@, ^ liil ^ ;$ H g| sfie ze;i 'k'iau kuS z67^ rh veh

lau zeh ku* although clever, he is not trustworthy,
*F^iS^f@, iJ®*^^^ 'hau •'zz 'hau ^ku', :,tau' 'ti

'pun zz* bing dzdng, he is well disposed, but his abilities

are not great,
H ^ 8& Jt, IS ^ ^ # i&J sGe zeTi W 'yon, kieu* kiung'

'tseu tub tau*, although it is a long taay, yet I can tvalk it.

Obs. Although is very frequently omitted, as in the second example.

323. Either,— or are expressed by gg ^ wfoh 'tse, ^ ^
J^oh 'ts6, or by ^ ^, ^ ^ veh 'zz— dzieu* 'zz.

^ ^tfJRyWL^U B veh 'zz 't^ng yung, dzieu- 'zz 'tdng
^ ba', you tnust either conquer, or be vanquished.
Wi^^.^^lS yoh 'dze tong, ^6\i 'dze sf, it is either
east or west.

^ :!: M. ^ S 11 f@ jm veh 'zz nong', dzieu^ 'zz nong*
ku* h'iung di', it is either you or your brother,

^ ^p, ^» ^ ^S ^ ^ ^'oh 'zz sing* tsang, i/oh 'zz sing*
\i, it must be some one nomed Ghdng or Li.

324. Neither, — nor are represented both by ^ ^ 'd

'^, and by X — X i'—i', with a negative.

-fi* ^ # fH, 4 ^ # ^ '^ veh w^' fi, 'k veh w^' 'tseu, he
can neither fly nor walk.

13 4 ^ II, ^ 4 ^ iJ. 'k'eu 'a veh k'€, 'seu 'd veh 'dong,
he neither opens his mouth, nor moves his hands.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. X. ANTITHETICAL CONJUNCTIONS. 159

5L ^ M) ^ ^ 'M ^^ ^^^ gi^-J^gj ^' "^^li ^% i^ is neither
cheap nor dear,

325. When the first clause is interrogative, and the second
commences with 07% the equivalent form is ni, the interroga-
tive particle at the end of the first clause, and j^ -^ wslu 'z«
beginning the second. Sometimes 4^ 'd alone is used.

?9 lU H * ee, 5t :! M # S H niing tsau yau^ k'V ni,
tvan 'zz yau d6f 'liang nyih, tvill you go to-morrow^ or
wait for a few days? (See also Art. 251).

326. Becausey — therefore are expressed by @ j^ J^^S
«^cS or ^ ;5^ to^^ tsz, in the first clause, and any of the illa-
tive particles in the second.

\&1^^ 'tis!!, ^JJitSSJi yung we veh zung zoh

'll, 'su 'i wdin yau' sau, since it is not yet well done, you

must boil it longer,
Ji i: ii ^ ^ tg 1^, & Jffc f? ^ J35 t^6Usz nong^ veh k'a*

weh lau, ku* 't*sz 'ngu veh 16, because you were displeased^

I did not come again.

327. Why — ? because — are expressed by any of the ad-
verb forms for why ? and the casual conjunctions in the
answering clause.

i^l^lgBS^S^^Mii^^ «^e^ sa' yau mie^ dziang?
yung WQ^ ku* giau 'la, why do you take down the mast?
because there is a bridge to pass,

328. On the one handy on the other hand, are expressed
by ih mie7i% or ih deu repeated.
-M3lC?Pr!^lliJ£^,-M:^ja^Pt^l»#ih mie^i^

'giun /iu lau yau zung sah, ih mie^i' ping ka' 16 lau yau*
h^h hwun, on the one side it is near the river y and they
tvill be be drowned, on the other side soldiers are coming
who fill them loithfear,

— ij2 55 — ij2 ^ ih pe/i' k'oh, ih peTi' siau', partly crying
and partly laughing,

-* BH ^ — S J© il^ deu 'tseu, ih deu 'siang, while he walks
he thinks,

329. Not only — but even, — are expressed by ^ ^ ;5^ veh
dok tsz, ^^ yi toky not only, or :^ fg. ;:^ j§ veh dai^ peh

Digitized by LjOOQIC

160 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

ku*, in the first clause, and ^ ^g dzieu' 'zz, or ^ lien or
j^ ^ lien tab, in the second.

^ ^ i: 19 ;S fh ^, S« ^ I® 4 A 4 <+ m veil dok tsz

jpang 'yen seh k^', dzieu* 'zz mdk sdng niun 'a zeh ke% it
» is not only /intends that are so, but even strangers too.
^ Jl g ^, ^m "? ^> veh dok zz' ka, lie?* tab 'tsz sun,

not only himself, hut even his children also.
iMi ji ®' 5i ^K 4 M f@ ft <i^k niuk foUjg, lie^ 'sz 'a niuk

ku^, not only isjthe wind contrary, but the tide is also

against us.

330. The-^he-are expressed by jH yoh repeated,
4S •¥• ^ i? yoh 'tsau yoh 'hau, the earlier the better.

Obs. Similar phrases are formed with j^ ^ yoh fah, the more, in each
clause, also with ^ TJtl yoh ka.

331. When the supplementary clause is, hoto much more,
^ \^ 3: hn hwong' ti, \^ ^ hwong^ ti, M JJt rh hwong' or
}£ "g" hwong^ 't'sia, are employed.

^ i? ^ ^ £, UO 151 M ^ t'ie/i 'hau veh k'on' kien', ha

hwong* 'u loh, when the loeather is fine you cannot see it,

hoto much more when it rains.
>M@ ^ ^ ^» IR. 1. i^ 1@ 'slau ku* tsii^ veh le, hwong' 't'sia
. dd^ ka*, if you cannot do a little thing, hoto much more

impossible for yo to do a greater^
^ ^n M.^'^M^i^U^MA zz ka zang* H'sia veh

iv6 tsd^, hu hwong* ti bih niun, since you cannot do it

yourself, much more cannot others do it.

Section 11. Expletives and Interjections.

332. There are some words which though they have im-
portant grammatical uses cannot be conveniently set down
among the preceding parts of speech and they ar6 therefore
l^aced here. Such are f@, ±, :g, Si, kuS tsz, 'tse, 'li.

a. -JU kuS besides its use as a numeral particle (Art. 156),
as the sign of the possessive (130) and in relative pronoun
sentences, also takes its place as a final after a verb, or ad-
jective in any indicative proposition.
Af i@, J^ ji i@ 'hau ku*, 'hau 'la ku', it is good, loell.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. II. S. XI. FINAL EXPLETIVES. 161

^ |g ^ {g veh nung tsii* kti*, or veh nung ku* tsu', I con-
not do it,

b. i^ tsz is the sign of the past or past participle, but as
will be seen in the first three examples, it is often indicative.
U ^ iS ± ^^ ^ z^e/j nteTt tsu* tsz ts6' siang* 'ts6, the '

year before last, he toas prime minister,
^ M 6 •& # IS ± 'pun di' ji>ah 'd w^' ««?6' tsz, he can

speak in the diatect of this place,
^JiM^M^ ii^ ^ ^i^g *sau yau' 'sid 'hau tsz meh

'i^^, finish writing it to-morrow.
iK^ + ^^P^'S'^^ tsu^ tsz zeh nlQu kwlw lau kau*

lau 'ts6, after having been in office for ten years, he retired

on the plea of old age,

c. ^ 'tse is the sign of an action completed, or in course
of being done, whether expressed by a verb or adjective ; also
of the imperative.

iSi ^ ^5 if ^ tsu* 'la Hse, 'hau 'ts6, it is done, it is right.
^ ift j@l ^ k'i^ Id ku* 'tse, he is gone.
Ip^itM^ °g^^ '^^ *s^* '*s^> ^ ^^^ rfoiwgr it.

d. 51 li and ^ 'la, are used like 'tse and kii^, as finals
to any indicative proposition. ^ 'la is also a preposition
(Art. 256).

*F ffi, ^ ^ © ffi, i? j® ffi 'hau 'li, veh 'hau 'la 'li, 'liau ku*
'If, good, it is not tvell, it is well.

e. P^ lau, the particle that connects a string of substan-
tives, occurs at the end of sentences that require something
to complete their sense.
EUfSit^^^^mMf^'^ kiung tv6\'l§i 'tse lau, 'yen

sd' ts6* wo',' I have said it, and why should I say it again.

Obs. Jfjy Tikis a. final expletive used with ^ 'ts6.
M ^ in ^^^ '*s6 nd, I am reading.

333, The final interrogatives are 56, ^, ^, jg ni, 'va,
ma/i*, mo. Characters are borrowed for 'va and ma/i*.

a, gg ni is used either at the end of the first clause in
an interrogative antithesis, or at the end of a single clause.
It is sometimes pronounced 'nia/j.

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162 THB SHANGHAI DIALECT. •

M^ ^ Wi ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^i wilVyou do it or not ?

if ^ iJ- % 'hau veh 'hau ui, is it right or not ?

'i^ ilH 5g n^ veh Hong ni s4*, do you not understand ?

# V 5^ ft f@ BB ^^T^ zz^ fuh kti* ku' ni, are the things

too dear if

h. -g 'va and ^ maw* are appropriated to direct interro-
gations, where not antithetical. They are colloquialisms.
IR ^ @ va7i* yung* maw*, have you dinect ?
jS ^ H ^ S ^^^ ?3,u* tse^ 16* v^, shall you come again?
^ f# -JJ 'h'iau tuh 'vd, do you understand ?

c. JH mo (man), besides expressing direct and indirect
interrogation, also implies a strong affirmative. (Art, 278).
SI f@ ^ ^ <@ 1^ * W ^ ^i' ku* h'i gl ku* meh zz* 'ye^

mo, is there this remarkable thing f

©^^S + ^^KiUS '^^^ ^^t '2z 5eh vun t(;a* Mng
sing mo ? is it not most wilfully unconscionable !

5^ Sj ^ JS 'zz Va, 'zz mo, i^ i^ so? indeed it is ?

SI is M ^ :^ JS ^i' kd* kd* diew du* 'mo, the price of this
is great indeed (jj^ JJ B§).

334. The initial interrogatives ^ 'k'i, how? ^ 'ki, Aow;
wiawy ? with jfl$ 'na,. forming '^i 'li, Jg J[ tf?Aere / which ?
and J5 fg *na nung, Aoit; ? have already been illustrated a-
mong the pronouns and adverbs.

335. The interjections properly so called, are such as —

PJ e, a/i / Pg g5f ^ # li ^ '^^^g ^®^ *^^ ^"S ^^ •' y^^ ^^
wo^ cfo such a thing,

Pj; t'6, ho ! P5 'p'e, i^ is bad.

p^ Pf ah yoh, alas ! oh !

p^ au*, indicates assent, yes^\ or I understand. In the first

tone, it calls attention or conveys a warning, ^ >iJ P^ tong

sing au, be careful^ mind tvhat I say,
Pf ^, ^ ya, as in ^ PJf 'zz a, ^ e^^j 'zz yah, it is so:
Pf va, is it not so ? P^ he, ah !

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p. III. S. I. ON GOVBBNMENT, 163

PART III,

ON SYNTAX.
Section 1. On Government.

336. The rules for the relative position of the parts of
speech are few and simple. They will be first considered
without reference to grouping, repetition, etc, ; the syntax of
words used under those foims will be presented in subsec[uent
sections.

A substantive that governs another as an attributive geni-
tive always precedes it, and the particle f@ ku' is inserted.
^1®^Jtil^f0^ll ^i^^ ^^^ koh 'pi tsz lok ku* koh

'tOT^, the horns of oxen are short compared with those of

deer,
^ !^ ^ ia J& W ^ W ^ 51 & 2/ang lau nieu ku* bi >u

t<i hau^ ^ung' deu 'la, the shin of sheej:} and oxen has

many uses,
JBI f@ ^ it :S Plfii ki ku* silng k'l* tsae* 'h'iang, the cock

crows very loud,

Obs. i. Thus substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its
part.

Obs. ii. In English this order is reversed, when the particle of is employed;
e. g, of airs of the nation is in our dialect, S ^ f@ ^ fS kok kia ku' zz*
't'i. When a possessive case is formed with '«, the order agrees with that of
the Chinese; e. g. the emperor's palace^ S 1{? f@ S iS w'ong tV ku' kong
die;)'.

Obs. iii. 10 ku* is omitted in some instances where it would incommode

therhythmus; e. g. S(i> M A M ^ ^ ^ $1 $t M, ^ M ^ 'f^

nga* koh niun 'tsong yau' 16 pong 'zu 't'sz di* Yaw fong «?ong tV, foreigners
inusi come and assist Bien Fung the einperor of this country ; "^ ^ PH i^ ^
K -^ 36 ih h'iang' m meh h'iung t<?ong* zun kwong, it has never had a time
of prosperity.

337. Adjectives precede their substantives with or .with-
out ^g ku<.

!^ ffi # ^6* ^i* fong, a large place,

•g ^ si koh, toestern nations. H 5^ huk t'le^i, hlach shj.
BB & fiE H. H ^ so 'Id yong' nyih deu 'll, dry it in the hot
stm^

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n

164 THE SHANOHAI DUUSCT.

^J ^ i@ ^ V li* ^e^ W meh zz^, a dangerous thing.

Obs. Numbers take the auxiliary word (Part. H. section 4.) Sippropriated
to the substantive they precede, between them and the substantive. An ad-
jective if needed, is inserted after the auxih'ary. e. g. — ^ ^iC M "? ill
zt' du' vong 'tsz, a large house; E |& J^ sz' p'ih bah 'mo, four whiU
horses.

338. Transitive verbs precede their objects,

^ 9i s^Dg 'h«, light afire. ^ J(^ 'nim pu^ dye cloth,
%U^M§L^hl^.'^^ f^ong 'tsz deu tsu* t'ih 'tsz, buy
red paper to make cards.

Obs. i. If there is a dative and accusative, the latter comes next to the
verb. For examples, see Art. 236 and 133.

Obs. ii. Impersonal verbs take a substantive after them as transitive
verbs ; e. g. ^ |g ^^ ^ na« k'^ hwo 'ts^, nowthejhtoers open (Ut. open the
Jhwers); ^ || loh 'm, it rains (Ut./a«s rain),

339. Adverbs are placed for the most part before the ad-
jectives and verbs that they qualify.

itt3? ^ J^ t'uh niung* tsun, unnecessarily industrious.
MMMl^ ^iau' 'IJ tsue' h'iung^, in the temple, it is most

crowded.
iH; J6 ^ 't'sz di^ 'sia, write it here.
Ifc M H H # h'ih 'lidng nyih tse^ wb', after a few days, we

shall meet again.
31 :g — ^ 2* zz ih k'r, tlmt is a different set.

Obs. The ^verbs that follow their adjectives, such as J£ ^ 'Adun sah
veri/ near, J-J- @ 'hau piuh, venj good, will be found in their places where the
comparison of adjectives and adverbs of quality are treated of.

340. Of the prepositions, some forming the locative case
follow their words ; the rest inclusive of ;jg^ 'dze, ff $fc leh
'^a, U ^ leh li, all meaning being at or in, precede their -
substantives.*^ S iP T veh 'dze h'iang 'au, not down in
the country.

Obs. . Prepositions of motion and direction preceding the personal pronouns
require a «"bstantive of place to follow, flj fg ^ J^U tau-'ngu dong k5,
co,r,c to me; ^ Ii ^ ^ W'la na' dong yeh Veu, u,he.e you come from, there
are none. See also Art. 197.

Section 2. IntercJiange of the Farts of Speech.

341. Under this heading, wiU be exhibited examples of
the manner in which words by a change in position, must be

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p.m. S.II, INTERCHANGE OF THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 165

construed as included in parts of speech, different from those *
to which when alone, they obviously belong. First, there are
three principal changes of position, by which adjectives be-
come substantives.

a. Adjectives when they follow a substantive with j@ ku^
are to be construed as substantives.
)5 H l^ 19 ^ *?, «l M Bfc iE sing li h'iang^ ka^ veh 'hau,

Hsong yau* 'ke tsung% the evil of the heart must be rectified.
^ ill f@ iSJ :S ^ UJ *'^' san ku^ kau liang veh t'seh, the

height of T'di-shan cannot be measured. t

MP^fSES^^it?^ vong ka» ku* k'weh Aah veh t'sing

'song, the taidth of the room, I do not knoia.
© IB ^ if ^ ^ ligu ku* fiiang 'hau 'si Hs6, my friend is

dead.

Obs. i. Compare in English '* the theory of the beautiful, " etc.

Obs. 11. Sometimes j^ t'su' is added to the adjective, as also S^ deu and
fah ^, compound substantives are thus fonned j cf. Art. 110. The same
words also form substantives from verbs,

6. Adjectives are frequently the objects of transitive verbs,
and in consequence are necessarily translated in such cases as
substantives.

4^ Jl^ hoh 'hau, to grow good (to learn good).
^ ^ 'kong Au, treat for peace^
^ :g| hoh. wsL% to grow bad.

Obs. These examples differ from compounds, such as jfp *AC ka du', mal:e
^rgei' ; ^ |^ k'6 k'weh, to extend in width (see Art, 219), which in their com-
bined form, constitute transitive verbs with a regimen. These on the other
hand contain the verb and its object within them.
^ tfir i^ 8fe >h, ^ S — ^ fB veh lun' du^ lau 'siau, dzew

'zz ih ydng* kuS without taking account of the great and

the small^ all are the same,
^ ^ ^ S'l A i@ :S ^ veh yau* w6' bih niun ku^ dzang

'tow, do not speak of the faults of others.

Obs. @ ^ 'ton t'su* is also used for faults.

% ^^^ ^ ^P^ <i' diau hn k'e tu 'sau k'weh, how
tvide is this river /

Obs. Adjectives with the interrogatives how much ? hoio many ; preceding
them, the verb being anderstood, are in common use ; e. g. M It ^ «

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^^^ THI SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Z;^S'.m ^ ® ^ ^ "^ ^ '**"*''''*"''"•"• ^ '*' ""^ *»-

c When one adjective is qualified by another, it becomes
a substantive ; with this, English usage agrees, as in the fol-
lowing names of colours.
m I ni6ng huh cfee^ Hack. ^^ ^ 'tm hong, light red.

i I IZ'^'J'-^'^f^'^^"'"' ^ « ""^"g' u^ong, fresh yellow
^f d^ong Ian. deep Mm. ?|||g 'fsle« l^n/ughi blue.

tive?t If *''"?''• ^- Construing verbs as substan-
TJLL *' "^""^ ^^^m^g^B. The infinitive and

pa faciple. In Chinese these are all identical, being the root

folU';^fanl;tt^
bKo?.?-?,^ ® ^ M k6h da- lo«' tsfl' ssn. V veh

" ? S J4* • S « f « f * ^ « «... ■ a..

■<«i «4 Kfe (arraa colendi) ' "■^*"' "'"''

« J5 K -^ S g « meh -fas tj, ,, „. , ,
'""■"" 'framing (coMili™ d.«cie^d',) ''°' ""

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p. III. S. II. INTERCHANGE OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 167

W^^ -^^^ ^ ^ kau* su ku* 'pun zz' veh 'yen, the abi-
lity to instruct, he does not possess.

c. The verb precede#by or followed by case particles.
^Ml&itM '^S^ '^1671* dze' 'la tsu', / am now doing it.
U J& fife ^ leh 'la k'iuh dzo, drinking tea {inter bihen-
' dum),

]il ^ fl* ^ leh 'li 't^ng mn', he is considering {inter pu-
tandum),

MtMl^ 4L^ ^"B tsu* kwen 'li h'iang* 'd 'yen sing
'k'u, in the office of mandarin, there is much care and
anxiety (in magistrate gerendo).

^ ^ K IpIJ 4 W ?i g»] 'sia zz' 'li k'i^ng* 'd 'yen fah tsuh,
in writing, there is a method.

d. The verb as regimen of another verb.

IK i@ ^ ^ 't^'^ dzih 't£;ong 16, cease to have communications*

Pi B^ ^ m sa* tsu*, / have nothing to do.

^ # W 1^ ^ ISr veh zung 'yen sa' tsang lunS there has

not been any quarreling.
^^ M"^ 'ngu veh 'si^ng k'i', I to not think of going.
^ ^ It 1^ IR veh yau^ 't'au 'ngu yi^n' do not make me

displeased.

e. The verb as the instrumerd of effecting an action.

^ i: Pi ^ # mun* tsz lau 'h'iau tuh, you would knoio by
aski7ig.

^ ±ik\^il&UMM k'6 tsz p'au^ lau kong p'u' zung
deu, he made a breach in the wall by firing cannon.

^ S >6 Bl >^ SB flj& ^ veh lieu sing lau mong^ ki* t'eh
'tse, though not attendiug to it, I have forgotten it.

Obs. Some verbs are found among substantives and adjectives too.
^ h'iau* is a substantive in ^ § ^ >^ l$fe puh 'ze« h'iau' wo^ siew, of all
the virtues^ JUidl piety is the chief; an adjective in i^ "J h'iau' 'tsz, a filial son,
and a verb in "^ ]^ jj^ "^ h'lau* zun' 'vu 'mu, to revei'ence parents. In the
books such variations of grammatical character in the same words are very •
numerous. In the verse |Sl JS "J ^ sA ming 'tsz le, all the people came as if
they were his sons, -^l 'tsz is used adverbially.

Verb as Adjective, 343. The passive gerund of Latin is
related to adjectives as the active gerund is to substantives.

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168 THE SHANGHAI DIALSOT.

The corresponding forms in our dialect are compounds which

may be translated either as adjectives or passive gerunds.

"^ ^ 'k'6 a*, to he hated^ or hateful^

rT S 'k'<^ sah, ought to be killed.

1^ ijl 'hau siau*, laughable^ Jit to be laughed at,

t^ S ^ 'hau tsong* ku*, capable of cultivation,

Obs. The examples giren in Art. 246, as in the permissive mood, might also
be explained as verbs construed as adjectives.

344. Many of the longer verb groups are translated most
conveniently as verbal adjectives.

B ^ i& ^^* veh ku*, unbearable.
W i^ ^ ^^^* ^^^ l^> 'Unutterable,
ISfc ^ ?B & su* veh ming b^h, incalculable.

Obs. i. For a classification of these phrases v. Art. 227.

Obs. ii. Ai^ectives coming after verbs, with ^ tub and ^ 16 are best
translated as adverbs ; iK 2^ ^ ^ tsu* 1^ veh 'hau, it is done badly ; !^
3K 3fi S 'si* 16 t'ong giuh, it is written exactly to the purpose ; 5^ "X ^ *St
3?J IH tt 'ien 'tsz fi 'k'i 16 'ting k'wa', the swallow files very swiftly ; |i -Ji
JS w W 3k naau* 'tsz td* tub zi tsung*, ke wears his hat properly,

345, Many verbs are used as prepositions. They are |3§
z6ng, g yeu, pj tau*, jft Iictj, |g zau, g mong*, ^ te^, J:
'zong, f 'Aau. Examples of both uses are given.

ffil iM 5^ ^ yen n6ng* meh ts6*, it loill be as you decide.
ft iS il — i^ K yen '4 'l! ih diau lu*, 6y which way ?
^ 88 i& jS T ^ zz* 'nga?i yau^ Hctj 'an le, z:7orrf5 anc?

expressions should fie connected,
IR 5S ^ ¥ ^ :^ W 'tsz d3u lien pih dzeT^ veh '^^eu, paper

and pencil are both tvanting.

Adverb as Substantive^ 346. Adverbs of time and place
precede substantives with |@ ku^, just as one substantive
precedes another.

Jjfc fi& i@ W ^ 't'sz di^ ku* pdk sing^ people of this place,
fP ^ tb i@ A ^eh k6' nung ku' niun, people of that sort.
ISJUi^fSiWig^ffi ming tsau kiV zz^ 't'i t'suh doh

veh t'seh, the things of to-morrow cannot be known by

Hiinking.

Obs. 5tl sie«, is an adverb in sie?i yaa' 'tsnng 'tung 'hau, ^ ^ ^ w

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p. ni. S. II. INTERCHANGE OF THE PARTS 0^ SPEECH. • 169

i^j poit mustjirst make preparations, and an adjective in ti| H^ SC >& ^*8®^
sz^ tsike' sien, he was bom very early,

Z4n, When the adverbs take case particles, they must be
regarded as substantives.
IS ^ i£ It ^ *ia^* 'tsz 'la zion deu, the chair is before.

Adverb as Adjective, 348. The derivative adverbs like
the pure adjectives, form the predicate of a proposition.
A S i^ if- II f® ^^^^ '^z 'hau 'hau nung kQ^ the man is

good.

Or they qualify substantives.
MU&T U^U ts'^i' sz 'ti '^^ ^^' zz* 't'i, to do un-
derhand things.

Adjective as Adverb, 349. Some adjectives precede verbs,
and must in such cases be regarded as adverbs,
^ fg H ^ tu w6^ 'lidng kii*, say a few sentences more.
i^ ^ ^ S '^^ ^'^°g ^^9 ^^^y pleasant to hear.
f5 ^ ^ B^ 'tsieu yau' 'sau k'iuk, drink sparingly of wine.
i'i'i^M ^ '^^^ *^^^^ tsing* k'i*, you are quite at liberty to

enter.

Obs. U ziefi is an a<yective in IJ P^ zim mun, the front door ; a post-
position in fg U mun zie«, hefwe the door : and an adverb in 13^ M B^
zie» 'liang nyih, a few days ago : yZ is usually an adjective, but in ^ M w
-JB tn' 'liang yang* ku*, very different, and in :^ -^ El ft veh da' 'li
h'iung*, not very crowded, it is an adverb.

Postposition as Adjective. 350. When the locative case

particles ^ nga', J; 'zong, f 'Aau, U ziew, ^ 'Aeu, precede

their words, they are adjectives. When they follow them,

they are postpositions.

^ 19 nga^ \i6\ foreign nations,

jjjg ^ zung ng^% outside the ciiy,

T ^ '^^^ 'sen, an under workman,

^ y 'sen 'au, :$ IS T 'sen 'ti 'au, under another's au-
thority,

^ f% 'hen mun, back door. |g ^ van* Vieu, after breakfast,

Obs. The words for north, south, east and west, are employed in the same
manner, and may be regarded as postpositions. 4t ^ M V^^ '^e^ sing,
north star ; fli 4b ^^ong poh, north of the river ; ?§ ^ p'ti' tong. east of the

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170 THB SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Swdng-p'u^ river. In the last two examples, 4ll ^md Jji may be considered
locative case particles.

SuhstarUive as Acfjective. 351. When one substantive
qualifies another, it may be regarded as an adjective.
|g ^ 'tiau long, bird-cage. ^ {Jg nieu bSng, cow-shed.
:?g g hwo yon J flower garden.
SE 3® ^ pu IJ t'song, -glass window. (See Art. 174).

Section 3. Government of words in groups or combinations.

Inseparable groups. 352. In the closest kind of combi-
nations, when words of different parts of speech form a dis-
syllabic word, one of them loses its proper grammatical
validity by becoming a syllabic appendage to the other.

a. Thus, ^ kiau, to Join, in the noun ^ ^ kiau ka^ a
boundary, has not the property of governing a substaDtive,
that belongs to it in « ^ Jjg jg || ^ 5|f |g5 giang kiau
bang '2^eu 'tsong yau* zeh tsiS in treating friends you must
be true. So also other verbs, as —

^ 2^ung^, to correspond, in |g ^ yung* nieii*, agreement

loith prediction. (Sometimes also to agree, etc.)
^ 2^ng, to allow, in ^ |^ yung i', easy.
iS ka', to pass, in i§ ^ ku' seh, a fault (cf, transgrmsvon).

b. In the same manner ^ kong, work, J^ ynng, form,
and ^ k'i^, aiiger, in the following examples are not nouns,
since they are neither in the nominative or accusative, or any
other case. They simply add their primitive sense to the
verbs they assist to form.

^ # JS ^ iC ^ veh ti;6^ zung kong t'a' bing, he cannot

establish peace.
^^ m^ yung yong t'seh le, bring into visible form,
^ ^^WlM,^, 'y^^ sa' yau* 'dong k'i* 'ngu, tvhy are you

angry with one ?

c. Similarly, adjectives in composition, while retaining
their etymological sense, lose their individuality, and cease to
qualify substantives, or to form a predicate to a subject.

I*t — f@ ii ^ 3i 't'au ih ku' du^ niang Hsz, to take a toife.

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p. III. S. III. INaBPARABLB OROUPS. 171

j^ >J> M sau 'aiau t's^^, to cook vegetables,
^^ f&^M ^i^g' la^i tu' 'tsa Vy to fix one's determina-
tion.
fie ^ H 4^ 'pan Azien vaii* veh, to preserve all things.

Obs. In the first example ^ great is prefixed to the word for wife^ inde-
pendently of any second wife, and is usually equivalent to niang 'tsz. In the
third ^ Jirm is joined with £ <ing', and the two words together govern the
foilowing substantive.

353. So in larger groups, when words of different parts
of speech combine, the predominant character of the group
is communicated to words, which alone ha^e quite another
kind of force ; e. g. ff- tsun, needle ; j^ sie^i*, thread ; ^f
lAvagy feeling^ represent actions not things in the sentences —
'icAl^Si^WitllWi '^^ °i^^ niung*-tsun tsun-sien*-
'fong-tsuh, women diligently sew, spin and weave.

fl* >B» fil iS ke^i sing zing niow*, ready for and wishing.

354. When words combine to form a new compound term,
different in sense from both of them, their grammatical vali-
dity is lost, and the new phrase is recognized in its entirety
as a noun, verb, etc. according to its meaning. Thus, 5|
'yung, to lead, and ^ sie7^^, thread, form the compound §(
H 'yung siew*, a needle ; 'jf fong, square, and JH pi^n^, con-
venient^ form J5r 1M fo°g hie?^% alm^ ; ^ dze, to cut ivith
scissors^ and H v6ng% a seam, form ^ ^ dze vong, tailor ;
.}g tsau, to call, and !5 ^^^^ ^^ army, form }g 5 tsau
kitin, a trumpet.

^ 1^ 3fc ^ k'6 lu* sien fong, a herald.

^ ® ^ "5R 1^^ ^^^ kiun^ 'tsz, jailor.

ffi fiS ^^* 'pau, village bailiff, f^ ^ t6^ sQ, notary.

355. Coordinate words having the same grammatical pow-
er, arranged in groups of from two to five or even more char-
acters, form a numerous class.* In regard to the laws of
position, the whole group is treated as a single noun or verb,
or adjective as the case may be. In the examples, a hyphen
connects the coordinate words.

^ i@ fr ^, ^ :§; t; ^ ?t fi ^' ku* A^ng-zz*, dzw'zz zun-
nl*-'rfau-tuh, his actions are all based on benevolence,
rectitude, reason and virtue.

m

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172 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

kfl* zz.k'i% fa-t's! 'lidng ku* 'paw yau* pa* t'len-df^-zun-
ming, at the time of marriage^ the husband and wife must
worship heaven, earth and the inferior deities.

iM* Si* 'y^VL sd* zz* 't'i, ^a-nidng yau* mun* i-p6h-sing-
/ sidng* yau* 'hau veh yau* 'hau, if there he anything tha^
concerns their children^ the parents will ask the docter^ the
diviner^ the astrologer^ and the physiognomist^ if aU will
he well.
^ |g ^ ± « JDIIIJ ^, iBJ * fi> iS :g @ K as veh nung
yung* tsz k'i'-'ming-ka^sang, t'seh Mng, i' ku* dzang-
k'weh-kau-sun, you cannot by taking instruments measure
its lengthy breadth^ height and depth, (four adj, here form
one substantive, viz. dimensions,)

niun veh 'hau taT^ h'iung 16, d^' tsz 'mo-nieu-y^ng sari
ydng* tsong sdng, yung b6* niun yung*, men ought not to
be cricel in treating the three animals, horse, cow and
sheep, because they are useful to man.

m sa* zz* 't'i ku* zun kwong, t&n^ giun-gi-su-w6* l6* siau
mun* ko* nyih, when men have nothing to do, they take to
the harp, chess, writing and painting, to disipate care*
and pass aivay the time.

Si f# if ^ Jpi*-ni6k-p'u-k6*, coverlid and mattr ass, for bed-
ding.

1^ ^ 3!c (i Aa-mah-i-mau*, shoes, stockings, clothes and hat.

JH ^ zun*-z6ng, to yield to andfoUow.

^ ^ Hung-de*, wait for.

# ®[ ^ til kweh-deu-tsz tsih, bones, limbs and joints.

j^ ^ 'kwong dQ*, wide and great.

^ @ lau ngdng*, /rm and hard.

^ ^ H # is ^ S pu*-yang au*.miau* ku* '^au-ll, to pro-
pagate mysterious and wonderful doctrines.
356. Another numerous class of compounds consist of

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p. III. S. Ill, GROUPING OF COORDINATE WORDS. 173

words, which, while helping to form a larger group, retain a

grammatical relation to each other.

W — S^^^f^^iSA 'yen ih 'tsong w;4-fi-tsok-'t6 ku^

niun, there is a sort of vicious 7nischief -making men.
'^ II rtS tf rtl ^ f@ ill 'ngan m-dzing-m-ni^ ku^, quite des-
titute of feeling and principle.
IE ^ fi^ ^ tS H tsung' 'kw67i t'eu hn,n 'Isin du*, they do

nothing but waste time and be lazy.
^^;2:^#®lllBlft>5 niung^ t'so tsz 'ka yk deu

fah we *wong sing, he was misled by his pretend change

of mind,
mi^^%^^Mm>^^^ 'M°S tsz dzm p6 long^

'tsan ku* jo^ng 'yen t'seh k'i^, he led out his friends who

were his drinking companions.
tl^ ^ [i{ J^ m meh t'seh 'tie?^, has on classical authority.

Obs. i. li| governs ^ ancient books, and the two words together form a
snbstantive in the objective case, after th^ verb m meh. The whole is equi-
valent ^ Jl 'S ^ veh 'zong su *pun, it is not ttsed in hooks,

Obs. ii. In phrases of this sort, we have government within government.
A transitive verb with its regimen, may form part of a group, which is an
elongated adjective, qualifying the following noxm. Compare in English, such
phrases as " a luxurious, do-nothing life."

Obs. iii. Verbs with their regimen are freely used as "ac^iectives, and
connected by means of @, with the following noun ; e. g. ^ ^ Ij^ ^ ^
I^JSB'^i'^^l^t^^ yang' z6« lau tsong' dz6 yih ku' pka
• sing*, kiun niew 'k'li 'nau 'tse, the silk-worm breeders and tea eidtivators toiU this
year suffer greatly. So also other combinations, J& iSf ^ jSSv 10 ^ ^J
^ :^ ^ f® 'la 'kwong tong tsu' ku' meh zz', dz^« 'zz 'k'lau ku*, things
made at Canton are all ingeniously worked.

'357. In many cases, while there is a common grammati-
cal character belonging to the whole group, only part of the
constituent words give the sense. Thus in ^ ^ ^k'u 't'su,
miserable ; ji@ ^ fok k'i*, happiness ; ,g, JS^ un 'tie^i*
favour ; the second word in each has no influenca on the
sense. So also ^ in ;fB '^ siang sing', to believe vi, does
not in colloquial usage retain the sense of reciprocity. To
give that idea, an adverb such as ^ ^ tt^ ka, must be
prefixed.

358. Some terms originally consist of two syllables, which

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1

174 THE SHANGHAI DIALEOT.

are written separately, only because* the Chinese mode of
writing requires each character to be the sign of a monosyl-
lable.

Pj^ pfl" fun fti, to command. ^ $ sii tsllng,*^ to nurse (c).
PT !9 ti°g *sdh, give directions,

Obs. Such words as these are construed as verbs, just as if they were
monosyllabic words.

Separable groups. 359, Those cftmbinations that admit
of the insertion of other words, so as to lengthen the group
will now be illustrated.

a. Those that consist of two coordinate ords, admit of
a qualifying or governing term being applied to each word,
^ "ft ^ ffl ft gi^^ '^seu seu^, bi7*ds and beasts.

ffiC 5c ^ ftfe hwcTj i'ien 'h'i df^, exceedingly pleased.

^ 3St ^ 3 t'ong vun tah 'li, thorouglily understands li-
terary composition.

^^ M & ^^^S *^^^ ^* *s6h, satisfied.

P^ :3^ -gj "gl 'ngau nga t'sih 't'sz, grinding the teeth in pain.

I^ >& W ^S ^^^ s^^o 'tRe;^ i', to change one's mind.

jgL U jg ^ sz zien 'siang 7ieu*, thinks of the past and
future,

M S ffi ^ dzing kw6 dau* 'kii,folloto the rule of propriety,

^ It ^ ft Men zun pd* veh, pray to spirits and worship
Buddha.

ft iB ^ iS 'tsau sz mu* 'siang, meditate early and late.

b. The 'groups formed by the numeral particles admit the
tinsertion of adjectives and adjective phrases, between those
particles and their substantives. Material nouns sometimes
take their auxiliary after them.

•^ ^K ^ ^ iBI ih kun dzdng ddng sz, a long piece of brass

wire,
•^ )r b^ ^ )r ^^ p'ieii' du* t'ih p'ie7^*, a large piece of iron,
~ ft # & 1^ iB HI f S ill teat ^«' bah wo' ku' &ng kQ, a

talking parot.
— ;K ^ ^ Ig ih kun ^dzdug tsoh deu, a long stick of

bamboo,

"'' Or ^ jH tsang lu, to nurse (also c.)

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p. III. S. III. SEP ABABLE GROUPS, 175

•^ H :jf2 ^^ ih ts^h hw6 ^keu, a spotted dog.

— 51 ^ ]|R ih tsdng V^eii 'tsz, a thick sheet of paper,

-^ 51 ?$ ilK 5S il^ tsang boh 'tsz tsang, a thin piece of paper.

•^ttW^SBfH^^^sz 'yeti ftog mong ku^ pih, a pencil

that has a points
^ c. When a group consists of a transitive verb and its

regimen (which sometimes answer to a single verb in Eng-

Ksh), auxiliary words come between the verb, and its object.

Jl ii^ ^ 'zong tsz tong' 'ts6, he has been entrapped.

^±M^^ijti.M.^^ tse?^ tsz glow lau sah t'eh tsz
wong iV Hse, relying on his influence, he hilled the em-
peror,

^ W ^ m f@ ^ 'za 'yen kicTi* suh ku^ siau% causing the
laughter of those tvho are intelligent*

P7I fli 36 P5 t'au nong* kwong au, / beg your favour (light).

Obs. When a verb aud adjective are combined, the tense particle follows
the adjective j e. g. H& ]j|!i[ ^ jJl ^ ^ zung fong' song tsz meh 'hau, it
would be better to slacken the rope.

d. In the verb groups of direction and motion, the substan-
tive governed is sometimes inserted after the principal verb,
sometimes between the second and thirjd auxiliaries when .
there are two, and sometimes it is placed at the end.
M ^M yK'V ^ ^^^S ^^ ^^^ 'sz 'au le, brazen urn dropping

water.
JK IS "Ji T 2^ fong^ giau* 'tsz 'an le, let the chair doion,
]H: fS ^ jfc fong' 'ngu k'e le, let me go,
^ :l^ {ii -^ kQ/j ping t'seh k'i', drive out soldiers,
^ fi lij ^ t'i^^ t^^ **seh le, carry out a load.
^ J§ "flj ^ 'tang 'mo zieu k'i', drive a horse forward.
'^ 1^ ^ iM 2jJ 'pi^^S J^SL sang 'long 16, collect domestic ar-
ticles,
S J5 XJ A |9| 3}S *se* t(;eh bih niun 'tsew le, call a man to

life again.
IS ^K jS "^ 'tseTi 'sz tsing' k'i*, pour in toater.
^ jiS M ^ sah tsing' zung le, enter the city fighting.
^ ffi ?^ 335 til/i t'seh 'keu le, drive out dogs.
•^ {1} ^ ^ J|$ tart t'seh i zong le, bring clothes out.

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176 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

BL^^^ 'faTi 'tseT^ 'seu le, tw^n one's hand over.

H $J ^ 2^ zieTi' 'tseTi be7^ 16, turn the tray round,

3^ ^ IS ^ t'sang k^' zen le, pole the boat away.

^ ^ 5i^ 5jc t'e k'6 t'song le, push the toindow open.

^ i& &^ 'iang 'k'i fong le, take the loind to work the

boat,
Wi&im!^ iiung 'k'i tau le, lift up a hnife.
JK S l^fe ^ fong^ 'k'i p'au* 16, commence firing cannon,

Obs. Rarely the nominative is placed after the verb it governs, ^ yV r
5jS 'tseu niuH '«u 16, inen are coming doim ;Vj^ Mi^^ t'sz fong tsing* kl',
Mjind blows in,

e. Negative verb groups sometimes admit of an adverb
qualifying the principal verb, and coming immediately after it.
K i:^ ^ tti niun' dd' veh t'seh, I scarcely recognize him.
IS ;fc ^ ^ ^^* d§,* veh le, I cannot well talk.
^ 9^ ^ ^ k'6«* da^ veh kien^, I can scarcely see it^
V^:fi ^ ^ k'iuh dd^ veh loh, I cannot icell eat.

/. Verb groups with the affirmative and negative particles,
also admit the objective c^se after the principal verb.
P^- '^ ^ ffi kiau* i veh t'seh, I do not knoio its name,
M "1^ ^ ffl hwah i veh k'e, J cannot throto him off.
iSi^ ^ 1& P^ 1 ^^^ 'k'i, / cannot pull it up.

Obs. In many cases, the object comes after the whole group ; e. g. 'e ^
li >^ :^ tong veh dzii' da' ping, lie cannot resist the great army / to ^ ®
^ ijj tsu' veh 'dong sang weh^ I cannot do any worTc.

g. Repeated verbs with the tentative ^ k'o^i*, take their
accusative case before ^ k'on^.
P9 P3 '^ S mun* mun* i k'o/i', ask him and see,
Wi^^^M *su^ tsu^ vun tsang k'OTi^, lorite an essay as

a specimen.

Section 4, O^i Repetition,
360. The repetition of words frequently affects the gram-
matical sense of the words repeated. At other times it is
mere tautology adopted for rhythmical reasons, or for the
purpose of emphasis as in English. Cases in which the
repeating of a word has a grammatical value, will be first
considered.

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p. III. S. IV. ON REPETITIONS, 177

Appellative and relative substantives, when repeated, are
translated by all or every,

AA^ 0Sl>liffl^5f ^i^J^ ^1^^ s^^* ^y^h ^^^i '^^ ^^^

tsz 'pau, all men feel that the sun is inestimably precious.

5® ^ S iMi *'sCi* t'su^ '{an l6n% rebellion and disturbance

everytahere.
S ^ E E ki^^ii '^i^ii zun zun, all princes and magistrates.
^ ^ ^ jS> A A W'ffi za^ zu* '2/®u bi, niun niun 'yen
mieTi*, frees a?Z have bark^ and men all have faces^
36 1. The numeral particles are all repeated, thereby giving
the sense of all and every to their substantives. Subdivi-
sions of time, and space, measures of material nouns, etc. are
also repeated in the same sense.

/£ ^ ^ P ^ ^^6?i' ^^ ka kwa?i 'tse, the shops are all shut.
f^M ;S ^ J-f iifc ^^^ seTi' s67i* 'su 'hau 'la, the doors are
all loclced.

^ ^ ft Ic 1^ y^^Z *^^^ ^^^^ y^^* '^^^^j ^^^ s/ieep aZ? need to

be shorn.
M ^ IrI «i «i W >J> ¥ z«°g '" h'i^ng^ p'lV p'a' 'yeu 'siau

kah, iTi fAe city every ward has a bailiffs
5c 5c il? H Si *'i^^ *'i6^ 'hau nyih deu, the sun shines every

day.
^ V Jr Jf i^ ^ ^^^ 2z^ kiun kiun k'ioh 'sau, each catty

of articles is short.
ftl tG JI ^ ^ 5lc « p5 p6 tau mu k'w&* meh 'ts6, grind

all the knives. '

P^ K M "5^ ^ flS ^ ^^'^ k^^ vo^o '*sz t'aJi t'eh 'fcs6, every

house is fallen.
4» :^ H 4: ® S ^ A? ^^^ ^1®^ 'k<^ '^sz 'tsong 'tsong veh

'hau, this year all kinds of fruits have failed.
J$ i^ H ^ Hi ^ *si me* song song t'seh le, the elder and

younger sisters are come out in pairs.
S ^ f@ f± I»J :§; * ^ * ^ 'sia zz* ku* fah tsuh pih pih

tsong fong, the method of loriting is for each stroke to be

made tvith the point of the pencil.
j^ ^ -^ jfg- riau diau da* lu% they are all great roads.
'^ 'Sj ft IS" k^* ^^' *^^^ ^^^S every sentence is truth.

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178 THE SHANGHAI DlALtfDT.

ObB. i. The difference between full appellative or other noons, and the auxi-
liary nouns that deAne timO; space, quantity, and form, is here again prom-
inently brought to view. Duplication serves to show where the two classes of
terms border on each other. Thus, ^ ka, a street is not repeated ; the form
being, such as^Kj^j^^J^;^ — T^lgifilkalu' diau diau
meh 'm^» tsz ih t'sun' kau h'idh, the streets were all covered with blood an inch
high, ^ long', a lane, on the other hand is treated as a subdivision in space,
and takes no numeral particle j e. g. ^ ^5^ W 't" ^h ^ A ^ long' long*
yeu «eh nga' ka niun ka, in every lane there are t^n families or more.

Obs. ii. It has been shown in the section on adverbs, that substantives of
time when doubled are used in the sense always. This is an instance in agree-
ment with the broader principle, that all names of subdivisions and auxiliary
numeral particles are repeated, and that the repetition implies universality.

362, Adjectives are sometimes repeated before a substan-
tive, but much more frequently when placed as predicate
after it. No addition is thereby made to the sense.

it ^ tS IB A ^ ^ Jlc $i tsu* sang «^;eh ku' niun lau lau

loh l6h, the loorhmen are tired.
i? i? fll& V 'hau 'hau meh zz^, a good article,
>J> >J> 10 -- H ^ S 'siau 'siau kiV ih yiSn t'ih daii', a

small iron shot.
^ ^'U'^^^^^ pa.k sing*, very onany people,
?B 5^ ^ ^ J^ i^ hwo 'hwe yau yau zau zau, thefloioers are

very beautiful.
^ W^ ^ M M ^^^ ling mih mih zung zung, the toood is

croioded loith trees.
lli SS J^ J^JUI saTi deu ling ling long long, ^7ie hill is

picturesque.
^ ^% 'kM tseu tseu, unhappy.
^ ^ ;^ # S 13 U *'i^g ^^^'^^' ^sz sii sung long' long', we

heard the sound of reading pleasant and clear.
^ BR M J3E S 'nga?i li' wong wong, tears'flozuing abundantly.
iK M,^Wi '^^ ^^^S y^^' 2/^^^S ^'^^ sparks are very brigU.
+ ^ ^ ^ seh 'tsz tsie?^ tsieri, ten sharp-pointed fingers,

363. When doubled adjectives follow verbs they are trans-
lated as adverbs,

$&V^^ff^^^f0 ^^^ 2;z' on ba sa su zi zi kuS

the things toere placed in adrnirable order.
§i^W.W.^^^^^^' ^^ 1^^ 1^^^ ^'^^^^' t'sauS it is done in

a coarse loay.

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mmm

P. III. S. IV. KBPETITION OF ADJEOTIVBS AND VERBS. 179

Obs. It has been shown that repeated adjectives placed before verbs qua-
lify them like adverbs. We have also tH }^ S^ ?^ W "^ "ff 'long 'long
tsong* tsong* ^yen ih pah, altogether there are a hundred. The primitive adverbs
are not repeated.

364. Several relative substantives are repeated without
any alteration in the sense.

^ :jSL soh s6h, uncle. ^ ^ 'sau sau*, sister -in-laio.

^ ^ tid tia,/a^Aer. ^ ^ '^i 'di, younger brother,

jj^ jj^ 'tsi tsi*, sister (ah tsi, idem),
j^ j^ mV mi^ younger sister (m6^ m60*
^ jt§ md md, mother (or ah md).
^ ^ ku ku, elder brother (ah ka, it.).
^ ^ ^i* di', younger brother (hiung di').

365. When verbs are repeated, it is for rhythmical reasons,
and for the sake of alliteration. In addition to the examples
given in Art. 231, the following will serve to exhibit the use
of these seeming tautologies.

a. Single verbs are repeated with or without a regimen.
15 S iiS iH n^ f& yau' 'mk 'iiQn vaTi' k'iuh k'iuh, / loish to

buy a little rice to eat,

i&z>mmm^^,mmr^ 'nga peh ku' kiau kiau

hw6 lau, sieu sieu au tsz, / am just loatering the flowers,
and pi^wfhing the branches of the trees.

b. In a verb group of two, the second word is often re-
peated.

^ ffi ft i>eh sidng^ sidng^, rambling for amusement.

^ PS PS ^^^^^ ^'^ ^'^? laughing,

M ^ 7K S fg il ii »g '1^ 'sz 'li w;eh 'dong 'dong, the fish ^q

are swimming actively in the water. ^

^ lis *| It, ^ -t 19 >& yeii h|i h'l lau, veh 'k'ung y(ing[ -^

sing, he rambles about amusing himself, and loill not at-
tend to anything.

5S ?S ?^ k'oh It It, he is tveeping.

c. Many groups of four contain a single repeated verb,
|TB!i:i:^l^##^ '*ang b^* tsz lau fun fun koh mn',

being conquered, they divided and ivere all scattered.
^Wii.'l^m^UM^^ 'tang yung tsz lau kii le tuh

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tl

180 THS SHANGHAI BIALKCT.

i^ y&ng yfing, having conquered^ he came back satisfied

and elated.
iR 1^ H H ^ ^^* P'ift^ p'iau, the shirts of clothes blowing

about,
S 3t P^ P5 sing kwong 86n^ sen^, the star-light tivinkles,
tt 31 ^ ^ *sz ih yah yah, the branches and leaves are

waving.

d. Many^ verb groups of two are extended by the repeti-
tion of each word.

<^ ffi ^ ^ ^ 'S zz* 't'i ting* ding' ton^ tongS the thing is

brought to a settlement,
^ ^ ^ IS ]^ ^ veh pih ni ni dh (5h, you need not suspect,
3^ iSr J5 JS ^ 5^ Dg^ 't'sz weh weh. loh loh, his teeth are

shaking and falling out.
jtiMit i.\^ M ^^^ '*seu s^ du *tsz lau h'iung h'iung

hong hong, he has walked himself tired and is panting for

breath.
*5(iE # ft 51 Pl^I Pt JEi JEi $i 5i 'w^t^ 'tsaTi siang bdng* 'h'idng

lau llh llh loh l6hj the cups and saucers are falling togetJier

and making a noise.

e. Frequently in repeated groups of four, the constituent
words alternate.

il^fS^J^^MM: '*^ng soTi' 't&ng Bon' 'a veh U'

'kiung, with all his meditating, he cannot satisfy himself.
S^if^^H^t^ lieu M' lieu bu* veh yau* s6ng* 'tse,

stay, stay^ do not escort me out,
i^f <^ *F B^ W !^ W !^ ineh zz* 'hau k'iuh 'yen mV 'yen

mi*, this thing is very nice, it has a fine taste,

/. The verb is repeated alternately with two accusatives.
H ^ ^ ^{^ ^ j^ 'tsong yau* lau sing lau lih, you must use

your mind and all your efforts.
^J^if#l^5cl^Sfe ^^^'^ zung 'hau 'tse zid* t'le^i zia^

di% it is a good year, and we must thank heaven and earth

for it,
^ ^ ^ ^ wo woBg w6 tV, to be an emperor.
^ '^ M J^ tsu' kweij tsu* 'fu, to be a mandarin.

366. With regard to their syntax, groups consisting of

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^

p. III. B. V. OUDBB m OBOWB. 181

repetitions frequently form separate clatiBes of a sentence, but
not exclusively so. They also like other groups, obey the
laws of position of section 1, in relation to neighbouring
words, and in their internal structure, and are construed as
adjectives, verbs, or adverbs according to Iheir particular cha-
racter and use as a whole.

a. As adjective, whether forming a predicate or in apposi-
tion,

M^MAM^jEjEUU tsu* ih M' niun''ts6ng yau^

tsung* tsung* p'a* p'^*, as a many you must be correct in

conducts
'A^Mit:l^:^m^r^^mM.iSL niun dzu^ leh U

hwo hw6 sz' kuS du* 'yen fok k'i^ '1^, man living in a

beautiful worlds has great happiness.

b. As verb,

^ ^ IS ^ A 8R Ji k'6»* k'6?^* tu hau' niun kun la, see
there is a great number of persons following,

c. As verb.

mit^^m^^BfSmmM±t^^ 'tseut^eh 'tse
dzieu^ k'a* k'^' t^eh t^eh tsih tau* zm long*, when he had
escapedj they gladly received him to tht boat.

^^M^^^^^M ^^g ^i^g liang* li^ag^ seu zeu dii
di*, they openly received disciples,

nwmmm^'M^^sMmm zi^ng zi^ng si* si* 'k'au

kieu* zeh kweh 'tsz n^* nung ku', carefidly examine how it

truly is,

Obs. Groups of four, whether formed by repeated words or not, very
commonly fall into separate clauses ; e. g. jSt ® 1^ J^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 31
vun 'li m sa' 'hau, 't'sau 't'sau peh kong, it is not at all well written, but coarse
and unpolished.

Section 5. Order in groups.
367. There are various principles of arrangement in the
words of a group. A group of four (1) may contain in itself
an entire sentence ; e. g, 1|| BE :^ '|1 't6ng ni veh Hong, do
you understand ? (2) or it may consist of verbs and their
regimen, nouns and their adjectives, or other combinations of
the parts of speech ; e. g. ft^ % 3® fi sun yon li 'wong.

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182 tHS 8HAHGHAI DIALECT.

to redress ivju^*ies. (3) Repetition direct and alternate, forms
many short phrases into longer groups, (4.) The principle of
arrangement in many groups is, the order of nature, species
being placed before genus, and the whole before its parts.
(5.) The constituent words may be coordinate in meaning,
and alike in grammatical character.

In addition to these varieties of structure, there are also
mixed groups in which repetition for instance forms one part,
and words combined grammatically, another ; e. g. ^ ^ 7(%
,^ niaw^ nia»* peh vong, tMnk of constantly.

368. Complete sentences are here placed with the other
groupSj because they fall into regular forms, and obey the
laws of rhythm in a manner similar to the fixed phrases of
two, three, four or more words here referred to. Hence the
predominance of short pithy sentences in common conversa-
aion.

W B^ ^ IM V^^ ^^* v®^ 'to^gj ^'*y should I not understand f
^ 'S' IS # veh zung 'h'iau tub, I do not know.
?^ fil iC ^ yang ka* du' 'tse, the price of the dollar is high.
j^ II 3|| ^ na* nung* pQ.n^ fah, how should we proceed ?
^i^ Wt M ya^' 'baa dzieu* 'hau, if you toant it good, it is
at once goods

Obs. The order of the words in these phrases is regulated by the rules of
Part III, section 1, and the sections on propositions.

369. Many groups have an internal syntactical arrange-
ment, and they are so numerous, that although some exam-
ples have already been given, more will here be appended.
They may be divided into (a), those in which there is a re-
petition of the idea, and (b) where there is none.

PS ^ S ^ '^^^ tsierj zeli k'w^*, sharp lips and tongue.

W 5c & H ^'sing ViQn bah nyih, dear sky and bright sun.

1^ >® ft ^ ^^^S ^^ ^^^* nV, for get kindnesses,

Sfe 5c B8I ft& k'i t'ien m^n di*, deceive heaven and earth.

1^ ^ "H ^ *^ng 'tau si hwa, all is in disorder.

f& ^ I& @ it?6* dzang loo^ 'toTt, very loquacious.

^ PS i? ^ pew, 'tsz long^ zeh, fond of using the tongue.

# II JS» IS *'tt^ ki 'niun ngu% to endure hunger.

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w

p. III. S. V. OBDBR IN GROUPS. 183

S^ S 9( !Q^ ^^^ mfeii^ seu^ sing, in face a man, hut in heart

a wild beast.
3^ P K *§! '^'^ 'k'eu liang fen^ advice hitter but salutary.
\3i^ \U% sa?^ tsun 'he m!', delicacies from the mountain

and the sea.
^ y^f^lS 'tsz tong io6^ si, advising this and then that.
W^^M Mi dzong deu lu* 'vi, act contrary to propriety.
S i& t& H '^'^ f^^ P'^' giong, pleased with riches but fear-
ing poverty s
}R A 'K & 'sun niun li' 'ki, rob others to enrich one's-self.
pf 51 5^ H ha h'iung haTi* di*, to call brothers.
3^ H ]^ E9 ^^ol^ sa?j look sz', sometimes this and sometimes

that.
§1 3^ ^ ^ 'y\mg kiitng kQ^ 'iUn, to cite boohs and appeal

to the classics.
Bfe ®i Pi ffi t'sz ku t'song* k'ioh, to play airs and sing

songs.

370. Passing over repetition groups, as already sufficiently
illustrated, some examples will be given of those jn which
several words coordinate in sense are placed in proximity.
In many instances such words as express relative superiority
stand first.

M S ®! M ^^^S y^^ ^^ '^» wind, clouds J thunder and rain.
M 8 ?i ® '^ sih song lu*, rain^ snoio, hail and dew.
S H 1^ IE ^^^^^ liang fong tsung*, the wise, good, noble and

upright.
^ ^ ^ |g za 'mi yen ten, fuel, rice, oil and salt.
M.Wt^^ ^eu* koh 'mi mdh, beans, rice and wheat.
j§ 3^ ;$: 5{c 'sz tsong 'pun meh, beginning and end, origin

and conclusion.
^ :^ ^ J^ nieu, yang, 'k'io^, 'mo, cattle, sheep, dogs and

horses,
.;g ^ gj ^ kitin t'sing sz '^eu, king, parents, teacher and

friends.
SI ^ 5 -^ tseii 'ngo zah hwe, brides, tiles and lime.
I^SR ^ ^ iiun seu* k'wun dzong, birds, beasts and insects.
JK ^ {^ SB ping bang kwe/i deu, pitchers, pots and pans.

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184 THE 8HA9GHAI PUUDOT.

[Ql g n H 'rh m6h 'k'eu bih, ears^ eyts^ mouth and nose.

JSl R tS ^ ng ling ho» 'hfi,/«A, crab^and shrimps^

& ft ^ ^ ft kiua niun ddng t'ih gih, gold, silver^ copper,

iron and tin.
f^ 1^ 'k4 seh, explain. ^ mf 'sun ton', to judge.

KH ^ l! 8an% to be scattered^ ^ |^ t'eu t'sih, to steal.
Ei ^ y^ 'm6n, 9-OMnd Si full, j^ ;^ ton fong, upright.
USf j^ 'fong tsuh, spinning and weaving. "

Obs. On presenting these examples to a Fuh-kien literary mao, it was
found that half of the groups were in use in his dialect ; of the remainder,
more than half were partially the same with collocations familiar to him,
while the rest were entirely different

371 • Species invariably precedes genus, and matter form,
in groups formed of words thus related.
^ W # JSf i@ pil^ dong 'hau t'sah ku*, yotc can stick it in

the pencil holder.
Pll ?5 ^ li -J: ^ D^^t pih mau Hsz, there is no top-case to

the pencil.
j^ tS fife 10 ^^^ tstog, p'u* ku*, the musquito curtain is

torn.
M% %^ Wi s6n* kweh lok t'sih ku*, the frame of the fan

is painted green.
ii jS S tT ^ ^ t'ih tfen^ li 'tdng 'lA ku', U was made in

tlie hlachsmith' s shop.
^ ^ «ah 'mo, stone horse. M M P^ Btn', Iroad-leaf fans,
f^ J^ so bi, sand paper.
% ts^ M '^S^ ^ ^^9 earthenware fragments.

Obs. i. Substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part
This is sometimes the same with the proposition immediately above, genus
being only such part of species as happens to belong commonly to several
objects. We may flx our attention on either word in the compound indifferen-
tly, considering it as the essence^ while the other is the aeeidmt. Thus, j§ §
oh ki, f&mdaiion of a house ; S IH ho 'ting, house roof^ are parts of the
appellative substantive house. So, if speaking of the articles into which
bamboo is manufactured, the second word in fj ^ tsoh ba, piece of flattened
bamboo ; \^ ^ tsoh lie«, bajnboo window-blinds ; yS W^ tsoh 'tsz, bamboo paper ^
is in each case that which expresses /(?r«i, while the first describes the material.

The latter may be viewed as accidental to the former, or if preferred, the
second word may be called genusj while the first is considered as limiting it to
a particular species.

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p. III. S. V. ORDER OF SPECIES AND GENUS. 185

Obs. ii. In conformity with the principle, that the word in which the
substance of the noun inheres should stand first, the auxiliary appendages
M deu, -5* 'tsz, ^ t'suS fi fah follow their words ; e. g. || H^ § j^
va»' m zing t'su*, there is no way of getting a living ; ^ fi 3^ W f0 'sia ^ah
'tsong 'yen ku', there mttst be sotne mode of writing it.

Obs. iii. The auxiliary substantives and numeral particles appropriated to
particular nouns, when they follow their words without a numeral, exemplify

the same law; e. g. |& IS ^ lIU ^ ^ 4B ai ^ fi' • "^ i>ah w6^
'li h'iang' veh yau' ka t'seh tu hau' su kii', do not mingle so many book sentences
in what you say.

Obs. iv. In double substantives formed partly with a verb, the verb as
giving the species stands first ; e. g. ^ ^ s6«' be«, counting board ; pjj f H
yun* *^3inf printing blocks ; Uf flf w6^ pingS « bon mot. (See Art, 113.)

Obs. V. Many inseparable dissyllabic substantives, in which the distinction
of matter and form is not obvious in their daily use, if viewed etymologically
may be noticed to have the same order ; e. g. 3!C ^ "^un tsang, literary com-
positions ; y&yj tV fong, a place. The word giving the matter stands in each
case first.

372. If the action be gradual in a compound verb, the
word first in time is first in order. The word that concludes
the action comes last.

Jfi ^ ^ 4ti ^^^ ^^ s^^^ hw6% to take and hirn. »
iS ^ ^ ^ tung 'tie;^ wen 'tse, the lamp is burnt out.
M^M%iS % P®'^ '^^ ^^^ ^^' '^^^S 6U, Ae was defeated

by the rebels.

Obs. i. Most of the auxiliary particles occurring in compound verbs follow
the principal word ; v. Art. 217, 222, but fl* 'tang, and such adverbs as helj)
to form compound verbs precede the principal words ; e. g. JJ* |5 ^ U
^ 'tang t'sih 'tang t'sih k'6«', make inquiries.

Obs. ii. The auxiliary verbs of power, forming a potential mode, precede
their verbs. ^ '^ |& fS" veh we' bah wb^^ he cannot talk ; ^ IE "^T
veh uung k'i', he cannot go. In English, there are also auxiliaries of this kind
preceding other verbs in apposition, without the sign of the infinitive interven-
ing ; e. g. may J can.

Variation in Order, 373. The components of some groups
admit of more than one mode of arrangement. The follow-
ing may be used in a direct or inverted order,
3|S ;gt 16 'wong, communication, ^fj^'i^ lih, strength.
^ §^ siau^ da^, laughirtg and talJcing.
^ ^ tsung tscTi*, to fight.
M # -fc T *seu sun 'zong 'au, the ivhole body (or ^ J:).

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3

186 THB SHAKOnAI DIALKCT.

IK ^ hwen 'h'f , pleased.

^ 1^ IE £ ^^'^ 1^^* 's^^ y^'^j toUhout regarding wJidher it

be iryurious or beneficial.
h]\ i^ 'siau, dQ', small, great. ^ |^ huh, b&h, ftZacir, Wti^c.
$ 4b 3K If ^^^ P^h ^^i^g si, south J north, east and west.
S ^ Ung tt;ung, ^7te soul.
^ $$ wa» 'ts6n, to turn rotmd. ^ g dzftng 'tow, long and

short.

Obs. The number of groups variable in order, is comparatively extremelj
small. The number of cases in English, where one particular order of coor-
dinate words is maintained, is by no means small ; e. g. lonff and happy reign ;
far and near ; kings and queent.

374 The following principles of arrangement may be
distinguished in the apposition of verbs.

a. The auxiliaries of the future tense, and the imperative
and potential moods precede their verb, 5^ yau^, ^ u;e^,
H nung,

Id H ^ 't86ng yau* k'i*, you must go.

^,# ^ 'ngii w;^* 'sift, / can write.

^ Ht^ veh nung 16, he cannot come.

^ H ^ veh yau* le, I do not wish to come ; or do not come.

^ ^ W ^ ^ veh zung «;6* yau^ le, I did not say, I should

come.
1^ ^ M 2JJ n6ng* 'd yau^ 16, you must come.

b. When the object of a verb is an action, it is expressed
by a verb in Chinese, instead of a verbal derivative, or infini-
tive, or gerund form, such as would be used in languages
having grammatical forms,

^ ^ 5E v®^ 'mfeii 'si, cannot avoid dying.
^ S> NS ^^^ 'sidng k'iuh, / do not think of eating.
^ ^ j3l ^ veh son* dau 'tseu, not to be regarded as flight.
^ JK fit veh'ke/i tsu% he does not dare do it.
^ Jl ^ j^ 'ki zz 'si^ng sieu, tvhen do you think of re-
forming.
^ ^ ^ JK 'tdng soTi* men 'fan, to meditate a revolt.
^ Hg Jg 6* k'iuk 'tsieu, to be fond of drinking wine.

c. The auxiliary verbs expressive of direction and motion,
beginning and completion, etc. follow the principal verb.

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p. III. S. VI. VARIATION IN OBDER. . 187

S i^ ^ 'm4 tsing^ 16, to huy in.

ffe JH i^ m ^pau tsing* 'pau t'seh, to carry in and out in
one's arms.

d. Priority in time often determines the order of verbs.
^ ^ ^ 'ngu k'i^ s6ng*, I will go and present it.

Ic 3jJ 'ft ^ yau* le sidng pong, you must come and assist.
m ^ ift Jfl Jt A k'io/i^ hwo^ sz* kd* long* niung, to exhort

and convert mankind.
Jf ^ glj A 'tang sah bih niun, to beat persons to death.

e. Coordinate verbs.

iS ^ it ^ Jit ® 'P^'*^ ^^' kwaTi kwo kii dob, to protect and
save tvidoivs, orphans, and those toho have no relatives.

Section 6. Simple Propositions.

375. The simplest sentence is that in which there is a
single word, forming the subject (^ 'tsu), and another the
predicate (^ ping). The subject always precedes.

^ ^ 'nio le, a horse comes.

5J 1^ t'ien nyih, the tveather is hot.

Obs. i. Occasionally the predicate precedes, {f| "^ t'seh to^\ the procession
is out ; ^ yjC lok 'sz, the tide is falling. These forms may also be explained
as impersonal verbs with an accusative.

Obs. ii. An adjective forms of itself a complete predicate, and usually has
no copula to connect it with the preceding nominative.
^47^^ ^au 'tsz zok *ts^, the peaches are ripe.

376. The simple proposition in its full form has also a
copula.

M la i^ ^ 'zz ngu tsok 'tsCi, / act for myself.

MM\U iK^^M '^^ 'li ^^' 'sz 'zz sun ku*, the toater of

the sea is deep.
3c 3jJ # ^ t'fe?i le tub nyih, the loeather is hot

Obs. When the predicate is a verb, the cbpula may be always considered
as included in it. In is when the predicate is an adjective that a vacuum
becomes obvious to a foreign ear.

377. The subject may consist of a substantive, or a sub-
stantive group, a pronoun, a verb or a verb group, or adverbs
of place and time, construed as nouns.

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188 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Si ^ Hi 3S ^7^^ deu veh t'seh le, the sun does not come

out.
^^^^^W^S ^^ dong zz' yon' t'oh 'yen 'sau

h'iang, in all convents and monasteries there is incense

burning.

H f@ :S i? ill 1® ^i' 1^"' 'zz '^^^ 't^®^ k<^S ^^^'^ *'^ *^^^^-
H :§: ^ t^ 'ma 'zz veh nuug, to buy is impossible.

^ l^ tC ^ # 10 t'l^^ 1^^ ^o^g ^^^ ^^^' kuS ^^ ^c^ as porter

alone or with others^ is what I cannot do.
jft: }fe ^ S '^'^ d^* V^^^ '^^'^j ^'^ 5wotr5 /^ere.
?9 ^ Is A\ Hiing tsau t'su loh, to-morrow is the sixth.

Obs. i. Sometimes the subject is understood ; e. g. 3^ ^ jfc ^ 3l i^
'tsong yau' lili ding' 'tsu V, Q/ou) must be resolute.

Obs. ii. Adjectives also sometimes form a predicate. ^ W P^ w 'hau
'yeu 'hau pau*, gooc^ness has a goQd reward; § 8s ^ TO ^ 55t W JjS
'ze« lau oh 'tsong yau' bie«' t'seh le, virtue and vice must he distinguished.

Obs. iii. Any word that qualifies a noun may be removed from its place in
apposition, and become a predicate. Thus, ^ M M "? ^ vS fS ^i' zti'
vong 'tsz 'zz 'la ku*, this home is the right one, may become, ^ gi j^ ^ "-^
'zz di' zu' vong 'tsz, it is this one ; ^ ^^ ^ ^ 'liang diau giau 'yeu, there
are two bridges, or ^ ^ ^ ^ /dau 'yeu 'liang diau, of bridges there are two.

378. When the copula is used, it takes the forms of ^ 'zz,
^ tuh, ^ ^% le tuh, and ^ le before adjective predicates,
while ^ tsu*, and in some groups ^ w6^ and f^ tsoh precede
substantives.

^ 3 :& ^ ^ iS '^au 'li 'zz veh t'so ku*, the doctrine is

right.
>& X 3^ # ^ sing 'li le tuh^un*, in mind he is stupid.
^ ^ M ^ '^g^ veh tsu* ping, I am not a soldier.
^ ^ M '^ M '^S^ ^^^ ^^^ kwtn 'fu, I am not a mandarin.
'M^f^M 'sia le 'hau k'o/i*, it is well written.
M ^ ^ t-f 'sia tuh veh 'hau, it is written badly.

Obs. Educated men appear to avoid the use of J$$ 16, as a substitute for
Wj but it is extremely common among the lower classes.

379. In the predicate are found, a substantive, adjective,
verb, or adverb, or a group of either.

it f? ic i@ :!: pSf ^ 'Pi '^S^ <iu' kii* 'zz a ku, he loho is
older than I is called elder brother,

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p. III. S. VI. SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS. 189

M^>h^M ^if ® so^ '»aie^ 'siau ku' seh 'kau ku', to

for (five little faults readily is good,
M^M^f&^^^M h'i^ lau h'i' fah lau sa* veh k'o^S

plays J jugglery and such things ^ I do not go to see.
ffi li i i^ f@ S 3i ^ A if ka^ dien tsiie' diV ku' 'zz tsun

tsCl pah 'pau, things of the highest price are pearls and

the eight precious stones,

Ol)s. The final expletives are usually appended to the predicate. ^ fS .
Rf 1@ seh «>6' 'hau ku*, your morde are good.

380. In very many sentences, the predicate is a transitive
verb with an object, which in its simplest form is a substan-
tive, monosyllabic or consisting of a group.
§i^'9^WL^M\^M A tsu' 'bau zz' dzieu' 'zz tseu tsi-

giong niun, charity consists in giving to the poor.

1^ ^ lis ^ ^ "^ 1 v^h nung j9aw* zz^ 't'i, he cannot trans-
act business.

W^^IIAMBS^^P^ ,ft % Veud6ngdie7iku*niun
yau* k'iuh ien^ u lau ng t'sz^, those who are rich eat birds'
nests and sharks' fins.

381, Great variety is introduced into sentences, without
the addition of separate clauses, by applying qualifying words
and groups to the parts just enumerated. Extension by the
apposition of words, alike or contrasted in meaning, and in
the same parts of speech, is also very common. The subject
is extended : —

a. By prefixing an adjective.
H A ffi iS sung* niun t'seh sz^, a wise man was bom^
^ 1? 1® A ^ Hong 'k'u ku^ niun tu, poor men are very

many.
i^ ^ f@ ^ fl^ A ii? 'hau 'lau ku* tok sCi niun 'sau, really

good scholars are rare.

h. By apposition of ^ substantives with or without ku*,
whether in the relation of species and genus, or subject and
attribute.
I^P T A ^ !^ ^ ^ h'iang au niun kau^ hwong k'i' Hse,

the country people are gone to announce that there is a

famine (or 5^ Jg).

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190 THE SHANGHAI DlALfiCT.

It « iB i? ^ H m S: ^ ii » '24og pe^ ku' 'hau Vsd^
yau* 'kong 'Ik 'tsz sun t'ing, the goodness of their fore-
fathers, you should tell to their descendants.

c. By a transitive infinitive with its objective case.

P£ "^ ^ :R jE IP S ^''^^^ iiieu nioh tsun tsung' 'ze ku', to
eat beef is an unquestionable sin.

d. By the addition of nouns or verbs governed by case
particles.

M ^ IrJ Wl S A ^li '1^ h'idng* m meh niun, there is no one

at home.
Ji ja BB fH >^ 5t W )(« <& i * « leh la k'wun^ ku^ zun

kwong '^eu zuh t'eu tsz k'i* 'ts6, o^ the time of sleeping,

thieves came and stole if.

Obs. The so-called genitive with f@ ku', is included under (b) as an
instance of apposition. It is the attributive genitive, or possessive case of
western grammars. The genitive sense is given by the relative position of the
words, and not by the connecting particle ku* often omitted.

e. By prefixing numbers and numeral particles to sub-
stantives.

M f@ A A ^ # ^ 'liang ku* 'nil niun deu 'tsing 'tse, ttvo

women have throion themselves into tvells,
^ ^MMWt%^ saw tsdh miau* sau 'hwe w^n 'tse, three

temples have been burnt to ashes

f By prefixing demonstrative, possessive and other ad-
jective pronouns to substantives.
^ If f® M M ^ ^ JE fB 'zz na' ku* vong oh veh Vun tsoh

ku', yo2ir house is not safe.
H SJ 4" ¥ T B^ ^ ^i' 'b^i* nieu t's6 'Kau t'eh 'ts6, this

chain puntp is broken.
#Af@ll^#J^f@koh niun kii* bi- k'i* koh ^^ang* ku^

each man has his oivn disposition,

g. By prefixing adverbs of place or time with the sign of
the possessive, or with no intervening particle. It might also
be said, that these adverbs are here all treated as substantives.
jft }fe f@ :^ it f@ 't'sz di' ku^ 'sz t'sing ka^ the wafer of

this place is clear.
^ ^ fB A ^ J& f@ ^<>»g tah ku* niun ^iau^ bi^ ku', the

men of this place are not honest.

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Google

p. III. S. VI. SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS. SUBJECT EXTENDED. 191

^MW'f^iKi^ J^ah pih vong 'tsz 'hu dz&h, the house next

door is on fire,
fP 3S |g f@ IS W iS: j« ^ seh ke' nung k.V yau few '14

zung 'li, there is a report of that sort in the city.
S^f@lf^^^-&fl|F^ f^n' 'ze ku' pak sing' veh 'pi

'ku zz kaw, people of the present time are not to be com-

pared to those of antiquity.

382, Several of these adjuncts may concur in forming a
subject.

^Ma«5Hlil^*E5l:l-^« nga* koh sz deu ka*

kw6 'kii ^' 'zz ih yang^ Hse, the foreign method of dressing
the hair is different.

'vu 'mu, kung kiung^ 'tsu tsong, mon 'zz ih y^x\g^ ka' '^au
'If, filial regard to parents and reverencing ancestors are
the same thing ^

383. The predicate is extended in a similar manner. It
may assume the following forms.

a. Substantive with its adjective.
® S ^ S jE in A 'zz gi veh 'zz tsung^ p'a* niun, he is

not a man of good onorals.
--Hill^iiKiE^^fSib nyih tau* yk' tsfi* tsimg* kiung

zz^ 't'i, all day long^ he does what is latvful and right.

h. Substantives in apposition, in the relation of species
and genus, or subject and attribute, with or without j@ ku*.
# IS 1® ^ ^, ± ^ IS ^^ wo' kii' veh 'zz 'zong 'he loo'^

tvhat he speaks is not the dialect of Shdnghdi,
AMMMB^^^V^^ nioh 'li k'6 ku^ 'yen kw6' hw6,

among the Rowers that blossom in the eighth month is the

oleafragrans.

c. Verbs in apposition. Any verbs in English connected
by and, to and of are translated by two corresponding verbs
in apposition,
is ^ jfe U "i iK '^g^ ya^' '^seu zien k'i* tsu*, I tvish to go

forward and do it
^ ^ M ^ 'ngu veh 'siang 'k'au, / do not think of being

examined.

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192 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

52 ^ 2^ tr m '^S^ ^^1^ 1^ 'tdng nang*, I do not come to

heat you.

d. Verb with an object,
^5 A tR 'fl^ & P^ ^^^^ 7mng' 1 'la, men Jicded Mm.
M iO ^ ^ ^ ^^^^ veh tab zia lii^ his foot does not tread

the path of evil.
rP -^ ffl 3ft 'tsau y^^ 2/6ng^ bong, morning and night , lie

applies himself to study.
S ^ IrJ S ft ^ 2/iin 'li h'ldng* k'on' siang sab, to take

a bird's-eye vieto of a battle (f^ ^ is construed as a noun).

6. Verbs, nouns or adverbs of place and time in construc-
tion with J4 or :j^,.
^ISi^ 1&MM: *^og ta veh 'U oh 'If, the master is not at

home.
^fSLWiit^'^ p^b sing* leh 'la kwo* m*, <Ae J9eqp?e are

hanging (paper) on the tombs.

f Adjective pronouns, and numbers with the particles ap-
propriated to the substantives contained in the subject.
ffi "J W -^ W M ^^^^g 'tsz *yQVi ih pah 'liang, of silver,

there are a hundred taels,
SI tC M ^ S -o i® ^^' p6 'i^ saw* 'zz ngu ku*, this um-
brella is mine.

g. The verb is qualified by the various kinds of adverbs,
either preceding it in apposition, or following it with f-| tub,
or ^ le, as subordinate copula.

tsu* tub tsuDg* kiung ku% everything is done as propriety

requires.
® S '^ 5£ ^ '^ i^" ^^^ ^^ ^^^'o^ 'h'iau tub, the gods will

certainly know it.

h. The cause, manner, instrument, place or time of the
action are expressed by nouns preceding the verb.
^SK^^l:^!^!® ^^>t]g I zong 'zz loong ti* song' ku*,

yellow dresses are given by the emperor.
MWi^M'MMM ^^^^^ ^^'^^' 'zz Su-tseu Uix' ku*, round

{silk) fans are made at Sii-chett.
!A i@ iS 51 ^ ^ 1$ ^ S ^ ® niun ku* ka* 'van dzen 'zz

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p. III. S. VI. EXTENSION OP PBEDICATB AND COPULA. 193

zun dau* dzo t'sah ku*, men's sins are all watched and

noted by the spirittial powers.
A^5i — f@Jii^iiT3^ niun dze^^ 'zz ih ku^ 'ts6 tsong

z€n 'aw. le, meii are all descended from one ancestor.
fS T ^ ^ W^ 2JS f@ '^Z^ '^^ P^^2.* tseu* 'tse?i le ku*, I loill

return in the ofternoon.
m Jfe :S ^ 1^ IS ^^* l^A '2Z nieu li ku', the ground is ploughed

by oxen,
Itg >J> iJ :fc Ji ^ iJ6 M li t^z^ng 'siau tau* du* 'zz y^ ni&ng

tsau* yung% from childhood till they are grown up^ they

are watched over by their parents,

Obs. The number of prepositions omitted in examples similar to thiese is
very great. Few of them are so essential that they may not be rejected. The
remarkable conciseness of written and spoken Chinese is due very much to the
omission of prepositions in the manner here illustrated. For that conciseness,
there is however in many cases full compensation, in the wordiness or richness,
whichever term be preferred, of the groups.

y. The same circumstances of cause manner, etc. are also
expressed with case particles attached to the noun,
SI*Af!ljiM*^ Ts^ng 'kti niun tau* Suytseu k'i*

'tse, the Master of Arts named Ghdng^ is gone to Su-cheu.
^ is ?& ^ ^ # ^ m ^ fit 10 ^i' ka^ p'au* ka^ 'tsz t'i^

WC\ 'dau de tsu' ku*, this cannon-carriage is made for

Wu the TaxL't'di.

Ic. Adjective with a qualifying adverb.
:^ If S Sic f@ A ES ^ 'zz vA' p'iau lieu ku* niun t'uk tu,

you wandering people are too many,
ff'^^^MtJ^'^^ '^^^S kwe/i sz yau' sok sin* din

tong^, lawsuits should be quickly decided.

384. The predicate is further enlarged by a combination
of the above forms of arrangement, by simple apposition as
coordinates, or according to the laws of position already de-
tailed.
4 fS M ^ ill -^ s^^S ^^h yau^ tsii' tau' ya*, tvorJc must be

done till evening^
f^6SBJ&i:W^^S3l 'ngu i>ak ft* t'eh tsz 'h'ti tu 'seu

kiah, I do have gone through a great deal of labour to no

purpose, *

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i

194 THE SHANGHAI DIALECTT.

dieT^ veh ^h'lau tuh ba* t'eh tsz 'ki t'sien 'ki man* ku* niun ka,
gaming has ruined I do not hnoio how many thousands
and myriads of men.

I? S ^ ^ ffi ^ 'ngu (subj.) k'on^ kiew* i t'seh le, I saio
him come out.

385. The copula by a little extension of the meaning of
the terms, may be considered as embracing the emphatic ad-
verbs, and the verb forms for affirmation and negation. In
conformity with this, the substantive verb ^ is constantly
used in the sense of yes, and with the negative particle {^
:g), no. The adverbs of emphasis precede the copula.

>& :R iE 3^ ^ g! sing tsun tsung* 16 tuh ngang^, his heart

is certainly hard.
•^ ^ S ^ Sf it ding* 'zz lau zeh, he is certainly trust-

ivorthy.

^ :S ^ H ?E "S 'tsong 'zz hwo den hwo 'nau, it is surely
false.

^ H J^ fi ®C ^i fg zoh nyih le ku' dzieu* 'zz 'ngu, he toho
came yesterday teas I myself.

Obg. The verb to have ^ 'yeu (with its opposite Pjl ^ m meh) describes
existence, as in French the verb avoir. The adverbs of emphasis precede it, as
they do the other substantive verb ; e. jsr. — U P* ^ IJ^ ih 'tie» m meh
sa, or m sa', there is nothing the matter; ^ 1@ ^ S Jf -ffi W ^i' ku' 'tou
'li zeh z4' 'yeu, there certainly is this doctrine.

386. When there is a negative particle, the adverb of em-
phasis precedes it.

^ Bl ^ J^ )& ih 'ngm veh ni sing, not at all incredulous.
^3fe^:l:^lifrlfi ^ing* veh 'zz yau* p'iew* 'tang n^S

he surely does not attempt to deceive you.
^ Tf; 1U ^ # ^ ^ zu' moh 'tau veh zung fah t'sing, the

trees have still not yet opened their buds.

Obs. When the necessity is denied, the negative precedes the adverb
expressity ; e. g. ^ >^^ ^ -^ veh pih yau' k'i', you are not obliged to go.

387. There are several verbs, not having a full transitive
power, that are often to be taken as little more than an ex-
tension of the copula. They are such as, p^- kiau*, ^ tsu',
"^ lod, f^ tsoh.

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p. III. S. VI. COPULA. IN VEBB GROUPS. 195

f^ M ^H &M tV kil^ veh kiau* kung 'dau, that is not

(or cannot be called) just (or veh kung 'dau), (or veh S07i*

kung 'dan, cannot be considered as Just),
^ fiSt ffi A '^S^ *su' yung* niun, / am a- servant,
^ 5C ^ :^ ^ Si ^^^ 'f^^ ^^^ ^^^ zz* H'l, rebellion is a

great matter.
'iC A ^ M i^ ^^'^^^ ^^^^ ^'^^ '^^^ ^^^^ '^^^ tsang ivomen

should not be rulers,

Obs. The equivalents of these words, in languages having forms of declen-
sion, usually take the nominative case after them.

388. The correlative prononns and sometimes adjectives,
are placed like the emphatic adverbs before the copula, the
substantives they represent being the subject.

^ * SI — •© ^ Ic M JK ,fi og zz' 't'l ih t'sih dzen yau'
hwah t'eh ku', bad actions are all to be abandoned.
^ @ :fe W J8 si zz* moh t(Ji^ 'yen yung^ deu, great is the
use of the written character.

389. The most remarkable use of the copula is in the po-
tential verb groups, where ^ tuh and ^ veh stand between
two verbs ; e. g, JJ ^ ^ 't^ng veh yung, fighting he does
not conquer ; f^ ^ Hi wo^ tuh t'seh, speaking can express
*'^ y ^ # H '^seu tuk 'tsew., walking yoic can turn back.

Obs. i. In colloquial use, these words mean Jie cannot conquer^ it can he des-
cribed in wordsj he can turn back. If viewed alone as separate sentences, the
first verb is the subject, and the second the predicate. So when the last word
in these groups is an adjective, it may be regarded as predicate to the verb
which stands first. This is particularly obvious where the potential force of
f-l' tuh and ^ veh are wanting, ^ tS ^ ^ t'6 pa« veh tu, tlm-c is no
great diffe^-ence; ^ f^ K 'sia tuh k'wa', he tvritesfast. Where the potential
force exists in these phrases ; e. g. P/t ^ P|bJ t'sz veh 'h'iang, it camiot be
sounded (pi a flute); S ^ tt 'zu veh dzuh, it cannot be set upright; 8fc ^ IE
'k6 veh tsung', it cannot be corrected; though the relation of subject and predi-
cate is less manifest, it is perhaps the best explanation.

Obs. ii. When adjectives occupy both the first and last places, there is no
potential force, and the second adjective becomes comparative ^ f-f" ^
kau tuh tu, it is much higher.

Obs. iii. Wherever the potential force is wanting, J^ 1^ is used conrertibly

Digitized by LjOOQIC

^

196 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

with'^ tuh; I e. !^ ^ ^ 'sia 16 k'waS he writes fast. Of the two ^
is most used by the educated. -' i

390. The subject and predicate are still further lengthen-
ed by expletives. 5^ meh belongs to the former, and j@,
it, !i, k kuS 'U, 'li, 'ts6 to the latter.

Obs. Educated natives used these words much less frequently than the
common people, except when they modify the verb in time, or as in the case
of ^, give a conditional sense. The predicate if an adjective has time given
to it by these particles, just as if it were a verb.

Section 7. Subordinate Sentences.

391. Sentences illustrative of verbs of knowing, saying
and wishing, etc, taking the initiatory particle that in Eng-
lish, usually follow the proposition or verb they explain,
Z-'Mm^M^^m* A Pih ku^ t'ing kie^i' nong^'

k'we?i de^ tok sCi niun, / have merely heard that you treat

with generosity^ literary men,
^ t& ^ t^ ^ ^ ^^^ veh nung le, he said he could not come.
fii^ftl^iM Bffll 'ngu' 'h'iau tuh i na/i ku* nyih

kiah, I know that he lived on with difficulty.
fg^^fSHftl&JRFMfiiK 'ngG veh sidng sing^ tV

ts^h z6n tsiang yau' 'fdin t'eh, I do not believe this boat is

going to overturn.

Obs. i. The clause introduced with thai is often placed first. ^ J^ V^k
IXw'X:SyvA>^wf@ kwe« 'fu «i meh nixmg 'tsz 'zz niun niun
'h'iau tuh ku*,^ that t/te mandarins have no money is knoym by every one; 5c ill
JK IS JsL yau' tsing' zung wo' 'la, he. said that he wished to go into the city.
The educated usually place the verb fg" wo' first.

Obs. ii. In Latin the construction of the explanatory clause, is that of the
accusative and infinitive.

392. Clauses expressing the object of an act, usually fol-
low the sentence that contain the act.

M \f f !l ^ ^' ^ • 'li^o ^ *^^' ^^^ <iQ°g ^^^ su, take him

to school^ that he may learn to read.
IS % t& ^ m 't'sing a zong* pa* t'saw, invite Buddhist

priests to perform a service.
P4 ^ X 2JS fi^ >J> M kiau* wo' kong le wo' 'siau tsau', call

a painter to draio a likeness.

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p. III. S. VII. SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 197

'zz nong* kdng song tsu' 'pun vun^, read the sacred edict

{coxnitry regiclations), to indtice the reading, agricultural^

artizaiiy and mercantile classes to jyerform their duties.

Obs. In En«Tlisli, the subordinate clause is introduced often by the final
tJMty as the previous examples are by the exi)lanatory that,

393. The final that or to is often expressed by the auxi-
liary verbs !^ yau, and p^- kau*,

^ ii S iJ pi i^ ^ ^ «^ai^g k'ioTi^ '^u k'wn' kau^ i /ioh

'hau, use all kinds of exhortations to make him improve,
M%n^M'^\fnm t^^^T^ niau ^la aong 'li yau' i
kiau ku*, shut birds in cages that they may sing,
Obs. In examples such as those of the present, and the previous article,
the clauses may be inverted. 5cJ£»^»B^ Hi '^S&ll'^^ yau'
tsoh ng lau t'seh k'i' tung 'la kang so- li, in order to catch fsh, he goes out to stay
in the tvaich-hut, ||^ lau must be appended to the clause expressing the ob-
ject of the action.

394. The final that being often omitted, or ex2>ressed! by
verbs, the way is open to form one sentence out of the two
component clauses, so as to improve the general rhythmical
effect. This is done in such common sentences as the fol-
lowing.

i&M^M song* '\k nong k'6?i% I present it to you to look

at,
^ JHf 185 1^ 'kong 'Id na* t'ing, I speak that you may hear,
^ If li H ^o' peb na* t'ing, ih.

}^ IS 1^ 1^ V^^ ^^^^* ^ k'iuh, give him rice to ecA,
M B5 JB ^ ^ ^sun tsah 'k'i le k'o7i', deliberate icpon it

and see,

Obs. These examples differ from those of tho next article, only in being
obviously pronounced as one sentence.

395. The clause expressing the object of the verb is often
a single verb repeated or not. (In Latin, often the supine.)
^ 1,5 ^ :g: ji fg Ijg n£ so* 'tie?i meh zz* la 'ngii k'iuh k'iuh,

give me something to eat.

1^ PJ JS ^ "i H y^^* ^^^' ^^e^^' 'li l^'i' '»ia, go to the shop
and buy it,

396. The clause containing the action frequently consists
of a substantive, or substantive group, with any of the auxili-

Digitized by LjOOQIC

198 T HE SHAHGKAl DIALECT.

ary verbs of causing, or instrumentality, and the verb of mo-
tion Jjj, or ^ concluding the clause.
P4 BS •? J$£ J? 5|- kau* hah 'tsz 16 pd* 'ten, call a blind man

to worship the north star.
JB 3R ^ ^ BS *^^^ ^ 2ong le long-, take the clothes and hang

them out to dry.
UP S Jc iK ^ ^'1 M no zah hwe tsi^ng 16 seh pih, Iring

lime to ivhite-ioaaii the loalL
^WilS^^ M U \% * tari 'mo 16 gi tau* 'h6 Vm k'lS

bring a horse and ride to the sea shore.
ia ^^ ^ lie li t^^^^ *s6ng 16 kau zung, bring ts6ng tvood

bark to makeropes.
Jfi ^ m S ^^ ^^'^ '^^ \A^M yau 'sz, bring a cocoa-nut shell to

lade water.

Obs. The object of any transitive verb may be made to precede its verb
by prefixing some one of these auxiliary verbs and appending JJS le or -^ k'i*/

397. Substantive groups of many words are inserted be-
tween tlie instrumental verb, and the verb of motion,
m >g^ 5C iS T f@ *^ tl 35 m ^ 0J & tail Aeh fieri 'ti'au

ku* zz' 't'i 16 'kong kieu* ming bah, he takes the affairs of

the lohole tvorld and explains them clearly.
m # ^ A §K IIS! ^ e^ « BI S *i^ A T flff ± ta^kok ka

niun ka ku' sing' lau ming deu 'sid '\k niun ting t's^h

long*, take the names and surnames of every householder

and iurit& them in the register.
398. A relative clause precedes its word as an adjective,

and is connected- with it by the particle f@ ku*.

§i\%it{%^B ^V^^IJ U ts'J' J^wa^* '^^ ku^ sang W7eh

veh k'iuh lih ku', loork to lohich one is accustomed does

not fatigue.
n:^mm A'^^m^^^ ^^ang fong Vien^ ku^ niun

ka 'tsz sun yau' td 'ts6, he tvho gives alms toill have many

descendants.
S S ^ f@ M IS W IS £ A^ f@ ^^*^ k'wun' la ka^ dzung

deu 'yeu sz' 'ng l6k ku*, of besieged cities there are five or

six.

Obs. The relative or adjective clause standing thus in apposition with a

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. III. S. VII, SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 199.

noun, may be considered as forming with it the subject of the sentence, i. e.
the logical subject as distinguished from the grammatical, which consists of the
substantive only. •

399. Circumstances of cause, manner, instrumentality, etc.
precede in the same way, the Tvords to which they belong.

^^^f@^^0t!!imil^«a:1@^-o^S*^"s6ng*'^u,
ling mau lau 'mong bau 'tsong yau' k'o^i* 'dzoug ku',
peacock's feathers and embroidered tuTiics presented by the
emperor are sure to he highly valued.

m^.»T^i@«SI^^ei:*S HsQ tsong dz67. 'an 16
ku* p'a* deu, veh 'hau 'ke lo^n', customs deUvered dotvn
by ancestors should not be changed. • \

SAKAMillLSm^S^S^ sung' niun him
niun 'kong ku* 'dau 'li moh fi saTi kong 'u dzang, the doc-
trine taught by sages and learned men is all on the three
relations and five constant virtues.

ill ± J^ Bl ffi 1® :^K iff 1® saTi long* dziCTi 'nga^ t'seh ku*
'sz, t'sing ku', loater that comes from mountain springs is

clear.
5 51 5i Ji f0 M ?^ M ^ 1® zah deu 'zau 'la ku* vong

'tsz kien lau ku', houses built of stone are strong,

Obs. Many such sentences admit of the clauses being inverted. Thus,
5IC ^ Ji 1® tfc @ A ^ ^ f# may also be read, niun veh'h'iautuh
t'ie« ding' 'la ku' su* mah, man does not know the times decreed by heaven,

400. There are some auxiliary verbs, and .preposition
forms employed to introduce the subject, which then appears
in the form of a subordinate sentence.

m ill 5E m JKH 1® ^ H il m ^00^ tau' 's! ku' 'i 7ieu^
ku* zz* 't'i na72. 'kong. in reference to what happens after
death, it is difficult of discussion,

5t i»J ^ :^ M :^ ^ tb 1® 'zau tau^ fah du* 'dze 'zz veh
nung kiV, as to getting rich, I cannot.

tung ki 'zu kong sa?i veh kieTi' tub zeh ke' nung 'zau hw6%
hut as to ascending the throne, and talcing his seat on the
rivers and mountains, it is not likely he ivill he so for*
ticnate.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

200 THE 8UAXGHA1 DIALECT.

Obs. These words are not indispensable to Uie introduction of a subject as
a subordinate clause ; e. g. ^ -^ ^ 1@ ^' 'zz du' ku', as to size it islarye,

401. Similar to these is tUe construction of the verb forms
prefixed to interrogative pronouns which thereby become
relatives

zz* 't'!, yau^ tsu t's6 ku*, whatever thing it bcj he will do

it torong. «

^l&B^'&im^^IfffS '^^h lun' sa kwew 'tsong yau^ tuh

'hwe ku*, mandarins of all offices tvhatsoever will take

bribes, *
^ ^ M H^ :^ 2S£ «g # « SS: veh kti 'k! h6^ ping tseh,

'ts6ng w6^ ts67i* ba*, hoioever many soldiers there 6c, we

are sure to conquer.

402. Subordinate clauses expressive of time and place, are
placed before the principal clauses.

ft 14 n^ Jill * ^ -f It dz^* 'la sd* tV fong, veh 'k'ungte;5-,

he is untvilling to say where he lives.
mm^p.n^%m ±^ t'sing ming tslh k'l^ 'ki zz,

wong lih long* 'yen, the time at tohich the Tsing^ming

solar period occurs, is recorded in the calendar.
PJ BJ 1^ fS X i»J \f it 51 * tau* ming tsau 'ngu i* tau* i

ha?i* deu k'i*, on the next day I loent to him again,

403. The subject consisting of a verb and substantive,
often takes' the form of a subordinate introductory clause.
^ ^JJ A 1^ M ii Ife ^^' l^ih niun yau' yung* li mau*, in

treating others^ a man should be polite.
^ >5 ^ 'J? ^ 2^? ^2^^ ^^°S y^^* ^2lun tuh 'hau, in keeping
the heart, a man should keep it icelL

404. Many subordinate circumstantial clauses are intro-
duced by verbs and precede the principal proposition.

i^ :^ M 10 M 5fc ^ ^* l<^li ^^' '^ '^^^ zun kwong k'i' 'tse,
while it loas raining heavily, he loent,

M ;^ ^ is S> 55 ^ iH ^ f^ ^ tsau^ tsz 'ngu ku^ 'siang
deu, yau^ w^n' dzau de* 'tse, according to my idea, the
dynasty needs to be changed, (or, will be, &c,).

m±tB^B'^M-- >6 — i^ tsau^ tsz 'ku sung'- wong

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p. III. S. VII, SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 201

ku* ze;6* deu ih sing ih tub, according to the tvords of the

ancient hing^ ** one in heart and one in virtue,^'
||±^^*Pt^i:^ :t; ^ok tsz t'sih nUn sO lau 'k'au

tsz sieu' ze, having studied seven years^ he took his degree

of Bachelor.
m^-^m^mmi,n^^ li'iau tsz sa k'e le lau tok

tsz 'liang ts^ng 'tse, having opened the hooh^ he read two

sections.

nm±.^nn%m'^^mmxi^^ sung' tsz.ta wk

. lau meh kiah 'si '\k tse?i^ dz^ng long', after fining many

victories^ he died at last on the field of battle,

Obs. i. Sometimes the verb of the subordinate clause is when preceded by

the negative particle, put at the end ;e. g. :^"X^S^K'&^WjB»

T^ "p ping ting veh son', 'vu kw6« 'si 'yeu ng seh k\iw, without counting the

common soldiers^ Jifty military mandarins died.

Obs. ii. Circumstantial subordinate propositions often come between the
subject and predicate, t: t^U^^H^M^l^M^fS^
^ ® JK Ji ^ ^ K t'e« kw^w 'i kiung 'zeu tsz sing* Tsang kii' niung
'tsz dzieu* no sing* 'Li ku' fong* 'la ka« lau 'li, the avaricious mandarin having
received money from Mr. CMng, will take Mr. Li and put him in prison; 3?? yV
Wii^^^kM^^^^^A 'hau niun tsu* tsz tsiang* kwen
'tsong veh hah sah ih ku* niun, tJie good man on becoming a general^ will not kill a
single man without reason.

405. Many subordinate clauses are causal, and are con-
nected with the principal sentence by the particle p§ lau, or
they are inserted in the principal clause with ^ yung w^^
to introduce them.
m^n^mmV^^ ^^M tsu' zz' 'fl veh gmn 'kiun

lau veh zung kong 'tse, 7iot heing diligent in performing

his duty, he did not succeed.
^^BiC7G±Ptiii;5:^A^k^ tong* ba* w^n tsz lau

tsu* ts2 giong niun 'tse, he toasted all his property and

became poor.
#r^ilAPf^i;ft^ 'tdng song tsz niun lau ta' tsz kd

'ts6, /or beating and wounding a man^ he was condemned

to wear the cangue.
i!c^tS$fe^5H±^^^i zong gwaTi' 'Id zk\i deu long

se* lo^n 'tse, the clothes from being beaten on stones are

torn to p)ieces.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

202 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

*l#ll^lRrPi)lR«« *song^ toh m 'u6 u Ian v6g dok

'tse, the viceroy having no alternative^ poisoned himself.
±^^±hf^'^^±'k^ 'zong sz t'se7i tsz i lau kdk

t'eh tsz kwe;^ 'tse, his stiperior having reported him as

culpable y he was discharged.
^ H S ^ <^ ti ^ Pi ^ S >5 veh yau* yung lo^' zz' H'i

tu lau* veh zing* sing, do not on the ground of having so

much to do, pay no attention,

Obs. Conjunctions may be prefixed to the introductory clause. B ^ JH
f^'tW^jS^fi^^^RTII^ yung ivi' sa» Ai' zie«deu
/i ku' d* ku' ming zz* veh 'k'6 tse' di because three generations ago this naine was
used, it could fiot be employed again.

406. Conditional introductory clauses are formed by means
of particles, or they are understood to be conditional from
their position, or from the nature of the sentence.

a. Examples of conditional clauses without particles.
^Dcfllfia^lf^m^AT^ veh kiau« li'iiin' ku' nf

'tsz 1 'tsong yau* zeh 'au lieu, if you do not teach your son,
he zoill certainly fall to the lotoest grade of character.
^ # # >!S H ^ a *!!? fi ii ^, Pf i? HA veh tixng kinn mm
yau* 'zeu loow^ ti' ku^ ma yon' lau sah t'eh, if he does not
take gold and commit suicide, he must suffer the emperor's
displeasure and he put to death,

b. Examples with J^ meh, at the end of the conditional
clause.

^ X ^ * ^ ^ ^> tl ^ III ^ ^ Kt J^a'ligiongmehveh
yau^ jon^ Aung* ya niang veh fah dze, if you belong to a
poor family^ you shoidd not be discontented that your
parents are not rich.

m a^ S SM * ^ H S # JR JHp ^ 5i fl A fah dze fah
foh meh veh yau* ^e' ma^i' t'eh zz loh j/lin' ku* niun, if you
grow rich, do not treat superciliously those toho are unfor-
tunate.

j^^m^^*G^^^1^#ISii^' Hsz too' veh le
meh, p6 veh tuh yau^ i to^' io6\ if their son cannot speak,
they wish mxich that he should be able.

m ii *? •& *' K ^ ii= 1^ i*' ^ W ^' * ^^ ^' i^ ^ ^

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. III. S. VII. SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 203

W ^ V "HI ya^^' tsiV 'hau kwen meli, tseli yau* niaw deu
'^ong, zeh deu '^ong, pili deu '^ong, 'zau t'seh tu hau^ 'zen
zz* 't'i, if you want to he a good 7nagistrate^ you leave only
to move your tJioughts, tongue and pen, and you can do
much good,

c. Examples of the conditional clause as a case supposed,
introduced by conditional conjunctions.
'^^^'A^:t^\fi:MU zak sz' 'k'au ku' sieu^ ze

yau* i k'i' h'iang sz*, if lie has taken his Bachelor's degree,
they vjinh him to go to the examination for that of Master .

^ ® ^ 1^ ® il » ^ :^ W It lg # iiJ * ^ * z&k sz'

veh kau hiung* dok sO, t'sfCTj fong p^k ki' p'icTi* i tau^
hoh dong k'i% if he is umoilUng to learn to read, they use
a thousand arts to trick him into going to school,

^ ^ ^ Ji i? mp 'P&mmmM zah zen veh t'ing
'hau sell tv6^ pih ding* ba^ k^ dong* 'Vsan^ if you are
unioilling to listen to good advice, you xuill certainly ruin
your family and lose your property^

f^^ W J^ H 5 ii illt It # nS ?S /t'ong 'yen hwun song
'h'i k'iung*, yuDg ke 't'sing i k'iuk 'tsieu, if there he
marriages, funerals and rejoicing days, you ought to invite
them to a feast,

d. Examples of the conditional clause as a fact introduced
fcy It ^ ki' ze7i, or 5^ meh,
mmmMM^^^MMBm^^' ze7^ mong^ 'ic loh, veh

yau* 'za ten' nyih deu, ifyoic long for rain, still you should

not murmur at sun-shine.
IE ^ Pi ^ ^ ^ B^ B ?& W ki* zbn m meh veh yau* z6h

nyih z(?6* 'yen, there heing none, you need not have said

yesterday that there tvas any,
I* ^ ^ ?^ II * H 5^ ^ ki* zeTi yau^ meh tse' ki* 'ma

meh 'tse, si7ice you loant it, go again and huy it,

e. Examples of conditional clauses introduced into the
midst of the principal clause.

'zz niang 'tsz silie z^n t'song ming veh 'hau peh I pdi,n^
nga* deu ku* zz' Vd*, hut your ivife, although she he clever,

Digitized by LjOOQIC

204 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

you sliould not allow to act in matters leyond her sphere.

Obs. Several illustrations have occurred in the preceding pages of the fact
that the laws of position often render particles superfluous, Thus, in adverbial
phrases of succession, atid, ly, etc. are omitted ii^ •"* f@ ^"^ iS ih ku* ih ku'
me byme;^-^ H i^ ^^ H ih nyih du* ih nyih, greater and greater every
day. So, prepositions are usually omitted in subordinate clauses of cause,
manner, agent, etc, because they precede their subject and are readily under-
stood. The omission of the conjunction, for the same reason does not affect
conditional clauses (a).

407, If the verb and adjective groups with :^, ^, JjS are
rightly considered as originally forming independent pro-
positions, including in themselves a subject and its predicate,
they must be regarded in many instances as subordinate
clauses.

a. One of these groups may form an adjective clause, or a
predicate to a subject.

M^ ^M^^^ *su* veh 16 ku* zz' H'i tii, things that
cannot he done are many.

3^ If ]^ # S '1^ '^'^ '^^^ ^^ g^^^^ ^'^^ system of obser-
vances is excellent,

b, A group may form the explanatory clause to the verb
of a preceding sentence,

^ 25? IS" il ^ ^ "^^^ '^^^ ^^* long* veh 16, you must not say
that you cannot do it,

408. There are some fragmentary clauses placed at the
end of a propsition that need especial notice.

a, fl i^a* to endy or then there is no more to he said.

^h M Mi^ i, ^ M ^ M 'siau dong di^n wen^ tsz meh

dzieu* ba* 'tse, as to the small cash, you have but to change

them., that is all.
:& ^ ^ ^ ^ H s^^ P^^^ veh ik' dzieu* ba', if you have

none^ that is enough,
U^k^M ^Wt-^^ '^lew* 'dz6 too' ming bah dzieu' 'zz

'tse, you have nozo made it all clear ^ and that is enough.
^ "B' ^ fi ^ v^^ 'k'ung meh ba^ 'ts6, if you will not, there

is an end of it.

b. Several adverbial clauses used with adverbs of simi-
larity.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

p. III. S. VIII. COORDINATE SENTENCES. 205

^^illI5^# — JlS ^^ong tl' zu doDg 'vu 'mu ih pen,

the e7nperor is just like one's parents,
5i H I^ fS --* ^ h'iung di* t'eh 'ngfi ih yang^ my brother

isjustaslam,
^ ^^'^ hah zi^ng* 'ngu nung^ like me.

c. Some words with the negative.

^ i'S ^ iS 'k'u 'nau veh k'en, intoleraUy 2vr etched.
1S& ± ji ^ ^ ^' hi' long* Ian' le veh k!6n, the road is
exceedingly dirty.

d. After substantives needing to be spoken of in the dual
number ^ fg| liang ku% or ^ j@ ^ Hang ku^ zz^ are ap-
pended ; the former is applied to living agents, and the latter
to characters as representatives of abstract nouns.

^ 1* 11 51 M f@ ^ i? ^ Ifir ngu 'ni di* h'iung 'liang ku*
veh 'hau tsang lun% tae are brothers and ought not to
quarrel,

^I^^Mf@^*^ltMf@ 'ze7^ lau oh 'Hang ku* zz^
'pun le te' miCTi* ku% virtue and vice are originally op-
posite terms.

e. Prepositions of motion take after the nouns they govern,
the fragments ^ 'Hang, — • fgj ih dau, separately or together.
fS iii35 ii ffi ^h M H nl S ^ ngu t'eh nong' t'seh nga' 'Hang

nyih lau ts6' le, you and I ^ill go out for tivo days and
return,
#ii3Jfg-?S*Mft^Bi*fc7KKi t/eh 'ngu ih dau
k'ien 'Hkng tsah nieu k'wun^ 'la 'sz 'li, he and I together
led tivo oxen to lie down in the tvater (or — * ^).

Obs. These are perhaps fragments of propositions, of which only the pre-
dicate remains.

Section 8. Coordinate Sentences,

409. In further illustration of the connection of groups and
propositions, it may be observed, that coordinate sentences
often occur in juxta-position without any particle.

a. There may be several subjects to one predicate.
28: IS Mtm # ± a ^ ffi 3*J ^ M vun 'vQ puhkwe^,

h'iang sun 'zz sQ^ t'ok t'seh 16 gieu 'u^ the civil and military

Digitized by LjOOQIC

2^)6 TSZ HLXSGBAl UlALMCn

nian^Jr/r'n-^j tJ*A rjPMtnj and comnimi pt'xh are aU eoine omt
to pray for roi.K

lif^dAnoM-rjf/Vffrnor Mjjnrj to each pr&cmce^
h^ Thf-re may i)f* 5(f;veral preilicatei* to one subject, or se-
veral explanatory clat^f-s to one j>ropoftitioiL

'ymi vch ^mifm loni:^^ y^^g* zie^j ze fi' zz* sefa nyfla, ^" yoa
invite friends much, y&u wiUnoi avoid W€i8tiug maneg and
expending property,

5iZ*, fizz u rneh "gz, long k'i' meh long, i« the phrase wind
and water ^ tlte p>o^id rejyresents the water ^ and the winding
path {dragon vapour) the wind.

3S* ^ ^^^S kong (li toll 'nen 'an 'yen dzien ynng 'Aeu yang
infi* yiing yen^ y^^^S ts6ng yung ih 'fu 'li 'ng yung, the
general at Sung-hidng has under him, the front, hind,
left^ right and central divisions, in all five for the whole
prefecture.

410. The connective l^ lau is very frequently ^introduced
between groups ; and the constituents of any group of coor-
dinate words may be broken up into separate subjects, or pre-
dicates or objects by the insertion of this particle,
m ja a tt f0 iS "4^ Pt 11 f@ H ^ vun ma^ tseu t(;e
tH6ng* kfi' zQ* in6h lau tsok ku' li po, round the grave
are planted trees, and a hurdle hedge is erected.

- 3R IS 1^ W Jlr Pt iK Pt >Ma iJfe ^ IS Pt r ® ibka'ii

h'l&ng' 'yeu y&, lau niang lau 'siau noTi lau t'sa nm lau au
den, in one family there are the father and mother, children,
men and women servants.

*n M 35 1 fia - M S£ fit ?f 6 JB fiPtPt iPl i^PtSI^

10 ;^ flg tHZ 7/5?i* yau* 'kwe;^ ku* ih ybn^ 'li ku' zau bah
Wan fah lau lau zz z6ng* lau nie^^ sz ka^ zz' t'i*, the city
magistrate p7'csid('s over the rcveime, crimes, laiusuits and
inqnCHls of his district.

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p. III. S. VIII. COORDINATE SENTENCES. 207

ting lau sa' 'zz '^au de 'kwe^^ 'la kuS ^/le customs and a^my
matters are superintended by the Intendent of Circuit,
Obs. It has been shewn in section 7, that P^ lau also frequently terminates
causal subordinate sentences.

411, When there are two coordinate ideas to be expressed
connectedly, as with both— and— M B.» ^ ^nd ^ are em-
ployed.

5J^ ^ -g 5J, g m ?:« 'zz dzang, V 'zz k'weh, it is both long

and broad,
4 S im :B 4 ^ *P H '^ yau^ ka dzang, 'd yau* ka k'weh,

you must make it both longer and broader,

Obs. i. Ecm as an initiatoi-v particle is expressed by JSSfc 7^
®E:i:^®M4^ll)tll^X^ dzieu' -zz sang i' fsing 'rf veh
yau' hwah t'eh kiing fu, even if trade is slack, you must not waste time.

Obs. ii. 4^ is also used when no sentence precedes, as in 5h ^ *l»
W S i^g^-' l^oh 'mi 'a 'yen 'va, is there rice in foreign countries ?

Obs. iii. When the clauses are negjative, the negative particle is inserted
after the conjunction, •jfc ^ # II d -ifc ^ # 8J ^1" '« veh w;e' k'e
'k'eu, 'a veh tre' *d6ng sun, he can neither speak nor move.

412, When two objects are compared, they stand as coor-
dinate clauses with the verb Jfc 'pi between them, and the
attribute of comparison at the end.

&^^^ itM^l^i^B sang 'kii 'tsz veh ^pi zoh 'ku

'tsz dien kiV, unrijpe fruit cannot be compared to ripe fruit

in siveetness,
M&M^it^^^Mil? ^su* sang i^ veh 'pi nia?^* su kii*

'hau, to engage in trade is not so good as studying books,
i^Xh ^^ ^^ :k ii^og' 'Pi *sz 'ngu nien 'ki duS you are

older than I,

Obs. i. ^ i' is sometimes prefixed to the attribute ; e. g. '^ ifc ^ X 5t
i 'pi ngvi* i' 'hau, he is still better than J.

Obs. ii. 3L **' with the negative is thus seen to have the force of a separative
particle, while in the examples of the preceding article it is clearly connective
(hoth—and—) in one case, and separative in the other (neither — nor—).

413, Propositions introduced by the adversative particles
only, but, yet, etc, (v. Art. 310), form another class of coor-
dinate seuteuces.

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208

THE 8HAKGHAI DIALECT.

ij> Jt a s A R A ^ s « ffl S2p« A^mBi^fla

sxau dau 'li sung* niun Alen niua veh sih w6 tm' 'zz bing
dzdng niun zen yau* 'h'iau tut kQ*, small maUers are not
attended to by the wise and learned^ but ordinary people
must Icnoio them.

*F A ^^U}&min^'^m\f 'tau munta tong t'sing
'gum ku' 'tau yau* 'yon k'e i, you ought to attach yourself
to good men, but on the contrary you avoid them.

KfefBt&**^firJaif1?&3S5SJSKfi;tJiy^nidng

ku^ kw6n z6* veh 'k'6 'I dz^ng on 'Ik ka 'li 'k'ong bong 'hu
sau, your parents' coffins must not be long retained in tlie
house, lest afire shoidd break out.

414. Illative and causal sentences form another class of
coordinate sentences,

itt Jft Pi ^ ffi 11 f@ H ^ ku^ 't'sz m meh t'seh deu ku*
nyih 'tsz, therefore there is no day of escape.

g ^ p67^^ ku' sun 't'i saTi ku* zz zun tsing '1^ 'sz li 'su 'i
kwd^ veh tuh 'yeu 'Hen veh zz* 'z6, his body was up to the
waist in walerfor 6 hottrs, and therefore it is not to be
wondered at that he feels a little xmcomfortable.

415. In causal sentences, the causal conjunctions are used,
or the word for ^' cause " at the end of the sentence ; some-
times both are employed.

.^ 1^ # B :^ T ^ i? i® ^ & veh nung tuk sung*, ping

ting veli 'hau ku' yo7t ku*, he cannot conquer, because the •

soldiers are bad.
X a :@ D^ ^ ^ S J® if S >l? vun 'II t(;e* sd* veh 'hau

yung we* dok s£i 'sau, tvhy is his style of writing bad i

because he has read but little^

Obs. The answer to a question requiring ** because, ^' is very often ended
with re lau, whicli then takes that sense. But this is an irregular colloquialism,
since lau as connective conjunction ought to be followed by another clause.
jlBB^^I^^Mi:^P^ze« t'sz w?a' t'eh 'ts6 fong du' lau, the boat was
broken to pieces, the ivind being high.

416. Conjunctions forming pairs of sentences, have already
been partially illustrated in Arts, 322 — 330, It may in addi-

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p. III. S. VIII. COORDINATE SENTENCES. 209

tion be observed, that short phrases sometimes take the place
of coDJ unctions.

a. Thus for, not only — even — , we have ^ ^ U veh yau*
%o6^ and ]g£ ^ dzieu* zz in the supplemental sentence,

li. «$ S ^ S 4 ii!i fl: ^ ^ $1 veh y^u^ wo' ya niang
kiau' h'iiin* f veh 'ts^Ti, veh yau* w6^ t'sing 'yeu k'io?i^ ka^
i veh 'tse/i, dzieu^ 'zz pu sah 'd 'ii^n hwo* I veh 'ts6?i, do
not say that his parents loere unable to influence him by
instruction, and his friends by exhortations ; supernatural
beings even could not reclaim him by their warnings.

b. English initiatory phrases, such as I suppose that^pro*
bably, are represented by ^ *fQ, Jgs tfi *seh p'6% 'k'ung p'6%
or bv ^ ^ 'ngu 'siang, it appears to me that,

*r i^ ± « E Ji E® T ^^iS 3StS ^«iS 'tang sah
tsz yiong 'tiau t'sz 'tiau ^6k kuTi 'tsz 'tu '\k 'k'ung p'6' yau*
k'i* sah, if the male bird were killed , the female from being
solitary, would probably die of grief .

Obs. i. On the one side — on the other Mde — are represented by the common
substantive for side with — ih one^ in both clauses. The preposition and article
are rejected as unnecessary, cf. Art. 328,

Obs. ii. Although is sometimes expressed by a verb, in the sense let it be tliatj
MiMitMitMM,^JtiU-W\^>l^^t- bingnong' tV niok
'la zien miew', i 'a veh 'k'ung we sing 'k4 niaw', granting you that hell were in
sight, he wotdd stUlbe unwilling to repent. ^ {|§ sue nong*, "iB. ^ |8 *t&n bing
noDg*, are also used in the same sense.

417. Comparisons are introduced by several compounds of
]jfl zu, and some fragmentary sentences, as J:t ;5^ 'pi fong, /or
example,

mi^M 51 + ^^MmiamM i.m K-^ ping'

'hau 'y^ niang zeh fun k'a' toeh yen zu zing zak tsz 'pau
pe* ih peri, ivhen they recover from sickness, the parents
are delighted just as if they had found a treasure.

in [^ It ;^ f@ ^ zi^ <iong zu* moh ku* kun, it is like the
root of a tree,

^ in I. i: ft H ^ ^ i&> J|L ^ 'Ina zu kie?i* tsz 'ts^ng pe*
veh yau hweh li^h i, suppose that you see your elders, you
must not treat them disresptectfuUy,

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210

THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

^35 'pi 211 ta7i bih niun k4 ku' 'tsu tsong, niun tsu*
zz' k& kiV 'tsu tsong, 'yen ti' kQ' '^au 'li 'va, if for exam-
pie you take the ancestors of other Sj and recognize them a^
your otvUy could this be right?

Section 9. On Antithesis,

418. Of antithesis there are three kinds ; (a) that of words
in the formation of groups ; (b) that which gives an interro-
gative force by the juxta-position of positive and negative
clauses, (c) That of sentences contrasted in sound or sense.

Obs. The first of these should be placed with the sections on groups, but
the other kinds (b) and (c) are naturally discussed after propositions, and
therefore they are all placed together here.

419, Substantives that are opposite in sense, when they
combine into groups are treated just as other coordinate words.
^ ^ tseu* 2/a*, day OMd night.

llj ^ sa^i 'he, land (hills) and sea.

-420. Adjectives and verbs when they form antithetic
groups often lose their propei character a^ attributives, and
become substantives.
M ^^W.% '^san kau lieu du, beheading, strangling and

banishment.
^ Stt ^ SlS suTi Aien 'k'u han, sour, sweety bitter , salt.
H (^ K ^ ^ jS 3£ ^i' ^^^ ^^^ ^^ 'sau 'yon 'giun, hoiofar

is it by this road ?

421. Antithesis in the formation of interrogatives has an
important grammatical use. Thus, a verb with or without its
object expressed successively in the affirmative and negative
form, asks a question.

-^ M "91 ^ ^ ^ ^'^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^°s ^'^' ^^^S '^^^^ y^^ 9^^^

or not ?

Obs. The subject is prefixed and is not repeated ; e. g. j5 i^ ^ ^ Jt%
© fp ^ ^ fp iS- tsau t'ah zz' 'tsz na' 'siang z6' ku' veh ze' kii', do you
think the misuse of tvritten paper is a sin or not ?

422. Among instances of the antithesis of propositions,
many consist simply of a tautology of ideas by introducing
opposite qualities or actions with the negative particle.

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p. III. S. IX. ON ANTITHESIS. 211

^mmum,m^mm^^m >« ^ong die« dzieu'

tsu', m meh dong die;i veh yau' tsu^j if you have money do

ity if not you need not do it.
# A ^ >& ^ ^ 3c ^ ^. tR koh niun yau' siog bing veh

yau* tsu' yo7i* Aung*, every one ought to he contented^ and

not dissatisfied^

Obs. This figure of speech would in many of its examples he intolerable
in English, but the brevity and rhythmical structure of Chinese sentences
make it agreeable. It gives an air of simplicity to conversation, and allows the
speaker time to prepare his next idea, without forcing his thinking faculties to
a too rapid productiveness. The same advantage is obtained by the use of a
long group, where in English, one or two of its constituent words would be
sufficient.

423. Of antithetical propositions some of the most orna-
mental are those that consist of the words of a common group
lengthened into clauses,

J:W5cST^Aft 'zang 'ym Vien 'li, Vmu Aeh niun
zing, it coincides with the laio of heaven on one hand^ and
the natural seiitiments of mankind on the other.

^ W M ^ W M s^^^ V^^ f^^g '^^^ 'y^^ '^9 '^i'^d comes

first and rain after.
BiS^#i[;A,^S^#icA ming ! ka w^' kieu^

niun, pun' i ka w^^ sah niun, a good physician can cure

men, lohile an incompetent one can kill them,
at 7K ifc ^ # 55 i'C V^^^ '^z kieu' veh tuh *giun 'hii, distant

water cannot save from afire that is near,
UiSM^4*1S^% zie^i sz* vu zeu kiun sz' vu yon, if

in a former life you were the enemy of no one^ you ivill

have no enemy in this.
m 3 Hi ii W 5 B^ ai tong 'ni Hu tsingV si 'ni 'tu t'seh,

enter by the left ear and disappear by the right,
Jlt^WMW^%tM *'^ veh 'tsm deu peh veh 'ism 'nau,

he cannot be brought to change for the better.

Obs. This is a principal means of decorating the 2!C ^ ^^n tsang, the
literary compositions on which the educated class expend so much time and
effort. With the classics before them, and ten or twenty thousand words at
command, there is a wide field for variety. In addition to the care required
in the general structure of the essay, that all its parts may be conformed to
rule, the separate sentences must be framed in obedience to the laws of group-

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212 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

ing and antithesis, so that there may be no infringement of the order of the
words, as they stand in the ancient books.

424. Another class of antithetical propositions consists of
such as correspond word for word with each other in structure
and relative meaning. Many proverbs are of this kind.

1K W i ^ W SI tsa* 'yen 'tsQ yon 'yen deu, to every debt
there is a creditor^ and to every enemy a foe.

Obs. Premare has a large collection of such proverbs, to which the reader
is referred.

Section 10. On Rhythmus.

425. Chinese sentences spoken or written are symmetri-
cally arranged. The same rhythmus that pleases and aids
the reader, in such works as the Historical Novels exists in a
less elaborated form in the colloquial medium of daily life.
In the style of a fluent Chinese speaker, clauses of four words
each, will be found to occur more frequently than of any
other length. This measure may be called for the Shanghai
dialect the Double Iambus, the accent being on the last syl-
lable of a group of two words ;e. g. ^^^^;^||^^
lfft^7i±i^^^fi ze-'tsu-niun-k^ 'jreu song zz* yau'
't'sing 7iu-zong*-7au-'zz tsu'-tsu* kung-tuh, rich men at a
funeral loill invite Buddhist and Tailist priests, to perform
a religious service. Here there are 3 groups of four.

Obs. i. Chinese colloquial syntax might be divided into two heads, treating
of grammatical (or syntactical), and prosodial (or rhythmical) relations res-
pectively. Under the former might be placed, government, propositions, and
a part of the system of groups. Under the latter would be properly found
repetition, antithesis, and the remainder of the system of grouping. The latter
might be called prosody, but that word is more properly applied to the laws
of poetry. In the present work it has been thought more convenient to mix
these divisions under a common heading.

Obs. ii. Words in the fourth tone are just as important in the groups as
other words, unless they happen to be enclitics; e. g. ;/v Bi bB P ^a' kwa«
tsih moh, the general object. The last two words have no less emphasis of voice
than the former, and @ moh is distinctly accented.

Obs. iii. In dialects where the accent is on the penultimate syllable, the
four-word measure might be called a Double Trochee. These classical names
of feet are not strictly applicable, descriptive as they are of the long and short
syllables of poetry. They are here used for want of better terms, just as is done

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p. III. S.X, ON RHYTHMU?. 213

by writers on English versification, to express the pronunciation of words as
accented or not accented. At Sung-kiang the in city to which Shanghai be-
longs, the accent changes to the penultimate.

Obs. iv. In ^ j|G ^ ^ read, and tok 'k'i le k'6«', read it and try, the
accent is on the first and last words of both these sentences, the middle words
being enclitic.

426. The three-word foot may be called, if it consists of
two unaccented, and one accented syllable, an anapaest ; e, g.
S jfc it pill lih dzuh, exactly straight ; MMM J^'au k'au
'ku, to beat a drum ; ^ ^, 5 liang iv^' te;ong, a king in
Mencius. If the accent is on the first word of three, the foot
might be called a dactyl ; e. g. ^ 5^ ^ tsu* meh 'tse, do it.
Instances of such dactyls are rare and are chiefly confined to
sentences containing enclitics, which reject the accent. In
some cases, the accent is on the middle word as in jjj ^ ^
fong* yau* Hsz, to fiy a kite ; ^ Hsz as an enclitic throws
back the accent on the preceding word.

427. The number two occurs in innumerable combination,
which may be called iambs ; i. e. J:; [1] 'zong san, ascend a
MIL

428. Common recognized groups numbering more than
four coordinate words are not very numerous. They may be
readily resolved into smaller feet of two, three, or four words,
by attending to the ccBsura, which will be always found in
them ; e. g. § ^. ^ ti ^ ^ ^ 'h'i nu* e gti' e^ u^ 2/6h,/oy,
anger ^ griefs fear ^ love, hatred, desire. That mark of division
occurs after the fourth word for groups of seven, and after the
second for groups of five ; others may be divided into groups
of two or three words each.

Obs. i. The caesura of seven word and five word versification in good poetry,
and in street ballads, is generally after the fourth and second words, but
variations occur according to the taste of the writer, and the exigencies of
composition.

Obs. ii. By marking the caesura, groups of four words may be divided into
smaller divisions of two, and those of three words into parts of one and two
words. Thus the secondary accent heard in the first part of the group, and
referred to in the sections on tones may be accounted for, as properly belong-
ing to the smaller groups, or single word, to which it is aflSxed.

Obs. iii. The accent here spoken of is, that which is understood by the word
in English and French, viz. that emphasis which is predominantly on the

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214 THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

peDnltimate or antepenultimate in the former, and oa the last syllable in the
latter language. It is one simply of position, and is so far independent of tones
on the one hand, and of the quantity of Towels as long or short, on the other.
English versification is entirely reorulated by the accent of position, and not by
the consideration of vowels and syllables being long and short.. Thus in the
line " our voices keep tuae, and our oars keep time, " the quantity of " keep,
" and " our " is long, yet they stand as short syllables. Chinese i>oetry is like
that of England in possessing rhymes, and instead of a rhythmus of long and
short vowel quantities, such as formed the framework of Greek and Latin
versification, it has one of even and uneven tones.

Obs. iv. In some groups of four, the accent is on the first and fourth
words ; e. g. ^ T*^ "B^ 3E h'iang 'an pak sing', country people. But itis most
frequently on the 2nd and 4th, e. g. ^ ;(; ^^ |^ fd' kwe' bing dzief»S rich
and poor ; "^ SP ^ IE k'i' zia kw^ tsung', to abandon vice and reform. When
it passes to the first or third, it is because the word on which it should be is
an enclitic or has a weak tone. Cf. Part 1. section 3. for remarks on the accent
of three-word groups.

429. From this analysis it may be concluded, th^ much
of Chinese prose falls spontaneously into groups of two, three
and four words, with an accent of position to mark them ;
enclitics do not usually take the accent and are very often not
to be counted^as independent members of the groups to which
they are attached.

Obs. i. It has been already shown that the tones of a dialect are affected by
the rhythmus. This happens for example, in the Amoy dialect particularly in
the penultimate, where the second and seventh tones change into the high quick
rising, and high quick falling respectively. In Chinese prose compositions, it
is usual to end sentences with a word in the first tone, and one of the three other
tones alternately. In their versification, words that rhyme have their alpha-
betical sound, and their tones in harmony. For an account of the use of tones
in poetry, see Remusat's grammar.

Obs. ii. The tendency of words as thus illustrated, to agglutinate into groups
numerically conditioned, is made the basis of all new sentences, and insensibly
regulates the composition of the native speaker. He would be quite as likely
to transgress the laws of intergovemment among the parts of speech, as to
overlook the rhythmus of his words.

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215

APPENDIX I.

ON THE HIGHER COLLOQUIAL, CALLED V0K 'lI 't'U BAH,

38: a ± 6-

Occasionally in the preceding pages, examples have been
introduced, from the style of conversation prevailing among
literary men, A common knowledge of the books, and the
existence of a universal mandarin colloquial, have given rise
to an enlarged vocabulary of phrases bearing this name. The
consideration of their etymological and syntactical peculiari-
ties belong to the grammar of the books and of mandarin,
the two sources from whence they are derived.

An example or two will be given. Among the verbs, the
auxiliary of destruction Jc^ t'eh, is replaced by ^ ^iau*. ^
^ sah diau*, to kill ; J^ |$ mih diau*, destroy. Many new
groups are also employed, whose meaning would not be und-
erstood by the common people. ^ j^ jlt? i^ tung tsoh hwe
t^ong, the hrightness of the candle in its lanthorn / 55c M >S
^ 1 kwe 't'sii 't'su, his dress and hat look neat.

In carrying on conversation with the educated,, it is neces-
sary to know these phrases when they occur, and it is a great
advantage to be able to use them, but in an elementary work
like the present, it is enough to say that the path to that
knowledge lies in the study of the books, and of the general
language. This part of the colloquial medium is common
ground to all dialects, where no distinction remains, but that
of pronunciation. In many cases, however, phrases not used
in the every-day dialect of this district, and which therefore,
are considered ^ g vun li, are found in the colloquial of
other parts of China, much farther removed from mandarin.

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216

APPENDIX II.

ON THE NATIVE TABLES OF INITIALS AND FINALS.

Marshman long ago made a study of these tables, for which
he was peculiarly fitted from his knowledge of Sanscrit. On
comparing the alphabetic system of that language with the
Chinese tables, now to be considered, he at once pronounced
them identical in principle. This conclusion is fully confirmed
by what Chinese authors say. The explanation in K'ang-hi's
Dictionary of" the method of separating a word into its com-
ponent (Bounds, " (^^^ ^) sayb, " now tabulated rhymes
are in the Sanscrit called ^ ^ gi ^ ^ t§ fg §r. '' Here
we speak of mother characters, the sounds from which
all words originate, "jft5:^#^:g: — -SBX^j^-fl,
" That which in Sanscrit is called p*i-k'^-lah is here called
the division of sounds, which constitutes the foundation of the
science of words, '' itM ^^iMib^ ^M^ ^ ^ ^ ±
;^ y^, Eemusat long since pointed out that the language
meant by the word ^ Fan, is Sanscrit. He says in his Life
of the Grand Lama, Pa-sz-pa, translated from the Chinese
History of the Mongols in Remusat's Melanges Asiatiques,
Vol. IL 145, " Ce sont les religieux Indiens qui Tont (the
36 initials) fait connaitre d notre empire. " " Nos prdtres
chinais ont retenu cet usage qu' ils avaient pris des Indiens/'*
The accompanying table is taken from Bopp's Sanscrit
grammar, the characters of the Chinese tables being placed
instead of the Sanscrit characters.

Gutturals, £ k^, g| kha, fP g&, gh4, ^ ngd.
Palatals, ^ chd, ^ ch'a, ^ dja, d'zd, jig nid,
Linguals, ^ ta, jf t'a, ^ da, dh'a,^Sna,
Dentals, • ta, thd, dd, dhd, nd.

Labials, % pa, W P^d, ^ bd, bhd, 58 md.
Semivocals, ^ jd (y) ra, Jj5 la, wd (v.)

Sibilants, sa(sO, § sha(V); >6 sd (s), Bi h^-

Marshman possessed a genuine philological spirit, which

* In Julien's " Methode pour transcrire les noms Sanscrits dans les livres
Chinois," p. 2j he states that Remusat first published this discovery in 1811.

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APPENDIX II. 217

which often appears in the midst of the somewhat extravagant
theories in which he frequently indulged. He saw in the
present instance, that in the Chinese spoken language, the
consonants g, d, b, etc, should each commence a series of
words, and this led him to the remark " that a further
investigation of the Chinese pronunciation, would probably
discover some vestige of this existing at the present day. ''
Diss, p. 37.

The passage cited in page 43, also ascribes the arrangement
of these tables to a Buddtist priest ; he improved upon the
system of finals invented oy Shin-yoh, who wrote one of the
iioenty one histories^ viz. that of the northern Song dynasty.

It will now be shown that in a great part of central China
such a system prevails. Before attempting to sketch the
boundaries of that tract of country, a brief statement will be
given of what conditions must be fulfilled, in order to identify
an existing pronunciation with these relics of the Buddhist
industry of former days.

By referring to the table in page 44, it will be seen that
there are in all 36 initials including, beside 'those whose
Sanscrit equivalents are now given, f, f, v, w, z, zh, a lower
h and y, and the compounds of t and d, with s, z, sh and zh.

The required dialect should have therefore an extensive
system of initials, and as the modern tonic Dictionaries of
Canton and Chang-cheu, very accurately represent the dialects
of those places, it may be assumed of the Dictionary tables,
that they are no less careful in exhibiting the pronunciation
of their time.

Among the finals, ng, n and m, terminate words in the
three long tones, and the corresponding mutes k, t, p, are
recognized as the terminations of words in the short tone, few
of them having a vowel ending.

This is very clearly perceptible in the tables of the ^ ^
a Dictionary, which was published many years before that of
K'^ng-hi, and in those of the Dictionary called ^ |§(^ IE Si
/iong 'wu cliung"' ytin^ In the latter for example words in
the short tone ending in k, are classed under jg, ^, [{g. Those

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218 APPENDIX II.

in t are found under jpf, ^, ||, J§. Those in p are under
II ^ M- proQ- tsip, et^.

The same careful separation of the finals ng, n and m is
also found in these Dictionaries. The modern mandarin sound
kien, is found subdivided into the four words kien, kiem, kan,
kam ; e. g. the ^ ^ classes words in ien under the headings,
^, H, |g, g. Mandarin words in 6ng are found under two
heads, ^ kong and ^ kiong respectively. While the first
medial i is thus affected, the other medial u is found as it is
in modern mandarin spelling, except that :^ is spelt kwo,
and heads a class distinct from another which is ranged
under gjc-^

The number of classes into which the finals are divided
varies in different Dictionaries. That of the ^ ^, perhaps
the must convenient arrangement, consists of 44, This in-
cludes the \ )g finals k, t, p, as the same in sound with ng,
n, m. The difference between these two sets of letters, is
supposed to be due only to rapid pronunciation occasioned
by the tone. In that work, the finals are as follow: —

1. Kong a, ki ^, kung ^, kin rfl, kiiin i^, kwtog %,
^wei ^, kwai ^, kwa JBt, kie 5^8, k(5 ^, kan ^, kw^n ^,
kiem ^, keu i^.

2. Kang |5g, kii g, kun ^, kim ^, king ^, kwung (j^,
ku ^, kai ^, kia ^, k'io J^, kwon *^, kien g, kan |R, kau
^, kieu is|.

3. Kiaii |g, kiong ^, king j^f, tshim ^, kwun |g. kiang
\X, tsz jif, kiai -g, na ^, kwo ::J^, kiuen J|, kiem ^, kam
-g-, kiau ^.

The remaining principal element of these tables is their
arrangement according to tones ; which are neither five, seven,
nor eighty but always four. Thus, ^, jg, f^ are all in the
first tone ^ ^, under the initials t, t', d. So also Jc f^Z!^ 0Q
are all in the first tone ^ ^, under the initials p, p', b, m.

* For a general view of the changes undergone in vowels since the tables
©f sounds were made, for example changes from u to li, o to ia, chi to ch, si
to sz, ui to ei, ii to \i, 6 to i, a to 6, 6 to a, etc. v. Grammar of Mandarin Dia-
lect, ch. 8, § 5.

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APPENDIX II, 219

Among the words registered in the second tone, are many
that are in modern Chinese in the third tone. Such are —

T^ being in the second tone, we see the probable reason
why it was not chosen for the name of the third tone. The
character ^ was preferred, because it exemplified the tone of
which it was the name.

The tables thus described are employed, to spell words
throughout the Chinese dictionaries from K'ang-hi and the
jE ^ JSj upwards to the T'ang dynasty and even earlier.
There is but one system and one set of tones, the tone is
included iu the final, or second word in the ^ ^, Fan t'sih
while the first gives the initial, and both are in constant
accordance with the tables. The characters ^2, and T^ for
example are always given in the J: ^ second tone, but the
latter is as a verb also given in the ^ ^ third tone. Di-
fferent dictionaries choose different words to 6pell with, but
the system is one ; e. g, |^ is spelt with ^ du and ^^ Hsong,
making 'dong. It is added ^ [^ Jl ^, it is the same as
dong read in the second tone.

In considering to which system of pronunciation now ex-
isting these characteristics best apply, there occur several
objections to the modern mandarin.

The mandarin of Nan-king and Yang-cheu in Kiang-nan,
of Ngan-k'ing in Ngan-hwei, and of Ch'ang-sha in Hu-nan
has five tones, viz. Jl ^, T ¥? Jl S» ^ S5» A I?- la
the northern parts of Kiang-nan another system begins.
Words in the A ^ j^h shiug become distributed among
the other four tones, and this peculiarity extends over the
northern provinces including the metropolitan city. The J:
2P and 1^ ^ differ as much from each other, as they both
do from the other tones, so that the nomenclature of tones,
when first invented, could not have referred to the Nanking
or Peking mandarin, as they are at present. Evidently the
lite.iati speaking tliose dialects have taken their names of

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220 APPENDIX II.

tones from the dictionary system, and not vice versa. Nor
have these two modes of pronunciation since the Yuen dynas-
ty any such finals as m among the long tones, or k, t, p in
the juh shing. Not to insist on the differences in the medial
vowel i, the want of the initials g, d, b, is another reason for
our seeking elsewhere for the prototype of the dictionary
system. The western provinces of China are the same in
principle as to their pronunciation. Like the mandarin of
northern China, they always admit the aspirate after k, t, p,
in the "f Zp, and reject it, except in irregular instances, in
all words that are in the southern and eastern provinces in
the T J;, T *, and T A-

Further, the irregularities of the initial consonants found
in the mandarin provinces, are not taken into account in the
native tables. Such are the changes oiki into clii at Peking ;
I into w, and n into I in many dialects ; the coalescing of ki
and tsi in others. The "f" ^ aspirates, and some other
changes are included in the second table formed to accompany
K'ang-hi's dictionary ; yet that table is but a modern and
incomplete revision of the older system.

If any one desires native tables of the mandarin pronun-
ciation, he must look for them in the £ ;^ % ^ and such
works, which give them with great accuracy ; though of
course their authority is not equal to that of the celebrated
dictionaries already cited.

For investigating the sounds of Canton and Fuh-kien, every
facility is afforded by the careful dictionaries of those systems
of pronunciation that have been prepared by native authors.
The Chang-cheu dialect with its fifteen initials, and its want
of a lower J: 3if is definitely marked. Although like the
Canton pronunciation it contains the finals m, p, t, k, admits
a medial i in words such as ^^ and rejects it in |^, thus
agreeing with the tables in some of their peculiarities, it can
only be regarded so far as the tables are concerned, as an
isolated, out-lying member of the general system of dialects.
The finals, m, t, p, k, disappear on the Fuh-kien coast at
Hing-hwa.

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APPENDIX II. 221

The Canton dialect possSesses very regular tones, none of
them being inverted in pitch as in Fuh-kten and Kidng-si,
and it has among them the lower Jt gf, or as it is usually
called, the sixth tone. In this tone are found perhaps half
of the words, having the dictionary initials, g, d, b, zh, z,
some of which are given in page 218. But they are pro-
nounced k, t, p, etc. E g. jg, ^, g, g, Jt, ft. These
words with many others are in the Canton ^ |[( marked
lower Ji gf. In mandarin they are ^ ^.

Nowhere do we find such an accurate general correspondence
with the tables, as in the pronunciation of the central parts
of China. The tones are such, that the dictionary system
is seen at once on examination to apply to them with accu-
racy. The alphabetical peculiarities of the native tables are
found with one or two doubtful exceptions, to be embraced
in a tract of country, which will now be roughly indicated.

In the north, the thick series of consonants, g, z, etc.
marking the lower series, i. e. in southern China words in
tones 5 — 8, makes its appearance in "g jj jlfl Ndn T'ong-
cheu, a prefecture lying along the northern bank of the
Tang-tsz-kiang, where it enters the ocean. The transition
from d,' etc. where the region of the northern mandarin is
approached, is marked by the introduction of the aspirate.

Thus, f^ dV becomes t'l*, before it becomes tV, The two
pronunciations are mixed in Chun-kiang fu ^ ^, There
the mandarin system of five tones crosses the river to the
south and extends to Nanking. All round Hang-cheii bay,
the two correlate series of consonants, and the four-tone system
mark the"" colloquial dialect. Chu-san and Ningpo, Shau-
hing and Hang-cheu, on the south, are at one with Su-cheu,
Ch'ang-cheu and Siing-ki^ng, on the north. Perhaps the whole
of Cheh-kiang province has substantially the same spoken me-
dium. Passing the point where the three provinces Cheh-kiang,
Fuh-kien and Kiang-si meet, the thick consonants are still
found partially prevailing in the two prefectures of the latter
province Kwang-sin and Kien-ch'ang, lying to the west of
the Wu-i hills. But at ^ jj\ Fu-cheu, a little farther west-

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222 ABPENDIX II.

ward they have entirely disappeaFed, and are replaced by as-«
pirates. Instead of di^ earth, tbey there say t'i, for bing
siclcnessy p'ing, and so through all words beginning with k,
t, p, in the lower series. The same peculiarity marks the
Hakka dialect and that of Kia-ying cheii ^ M^ ^y ^^ ^^e
eastern part of Canton province. Nothing can be said in the
present notice of the southern parts of Kiang-si, but N^n-
ch'ang the provincial capital has the aspirates only in the
fifth tone where they should properly be, and in the other
lower tones has k, t, etc. distinguished from words in the
upper series, simply by difference in tone. Immediately north
of this city, on both sides of the Po-yang lake, the broad
consonants occur again. It might be expected that through
Ngan-hwei, a connecting chain of dialects should link the broad
pronunciation of this region, including the Potteries ^ -^ SR,
and Ig J^ /J5^ on the other side of the lake, with the similar
system extending over Cheh-ki^ng, and a great -part of
Kiang-su, This line exists and extends through Ning-kwoh
fii, but it is so narrow that it does not reach the great river
on the north, nor the city of Hwei-cheu on the south. The
last mentioned place has two dialects within its walls, in one
of which two sets of ton(.*s exist, the tones of conversation
being quite distinct from those of reading. This is indepen-
dent of the alphabetical differences of the reading and the
spoken sounds, which also here appear to reach their maxi-
mum. Near this city, the pronunciation varies so fast that
three dialects are found in one liien. The belt of .country
across Ngan-hwei, where the lower series of consonants is in
use, is bordered on the north by dialects containijig the as-
pirates, that so frequently form the medium of transition to
the thin consonants and fewer tones of mandaiin.

Beyond the P6-yang lake westward, are also found the
g, d, b, initials on the banks of the ffp] ^ -^ Tong t'ing hu,
in Hd-nan. Boatmen from the district of ^ >f{j, on the
south of that celebrated lalve, may be readily conversed with
by using the thick consonants in all words in the lower series
of tones. Round these two lakes, the favourite resort of the

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.^PPDNDIX II. 223

Chinese muse, and from the natural beauty of which Li TSi-
puh drew the inspiration of his poetry, the same system of
pronunciation with that of flang-cheii and Su-cheu, the most
polished cities in China, is found to exist. This considera-
tion with the extent of the territory thus delineated, may
help to remove any strangeness in the assertion, that the
native tables of sounds made in the Liang dynasty, and copi-
ed into K'ang-hi's dictionary are not at all founded on the
modern mandarin pronunciation, but on what is. now a pro-
vincial system.

In the territory thus delineated, there is not the same uni-
formity in final that exists in initials. Of the three termi-
nating consonants is the A ^ ^^ ^^^7 is developed at Shang-
hai, and even this is wanting in all the large cities near,
including those in the northern part of Cheh-kiang. N ip
not as a. final in the long tones, clearly separated from NG,
and there is no representation of m.

On the other hand t and p, with their correlates n and m
are found at Fu-cheu fu, ^M ^fl )^ in Kiang-sf but k does
not appear. At ^ J^ ;^ Nan-k*^ng fu, at the western ex-
tremity of the same province, p and m are distinctly repre-
sented, but there is no k or t, and ng is confounded with n,
Kien and lean are distinguished at Shanghai, and in these
more southerly cities. Kong ^ is separated from ^ kidng
at Fu-cheu fu.

In dialects farther south, while the initials differ from
those of the dictionaries, the consonantal terminations of the
short tone are all clearly marked, and are in harmony with
the ancient system. Thus we are led to the conclusion, that
in regard to initials, the Kiang-nan and Cheh-kiang pro-
nunciation agrees best with the written pronunciations as
given in the native tables. But in reference to finals, Kiang-
si and the southern provinces best represent them. Kiang-
si appears to be the proviilte that contains within its limits,
the greatest number of the peculiarities in question.

In K'ang-hi's second table, tte distinction between the
finals, m and n is neglected; e. g. H is spelt not sam but

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224 APPENDIX II.

san. Further all words in the short tone are spelt with
vowel, finals; k, t, p, not being recognized, except as secon-
dary forms retained out of respect to the old system. They
are cut in small circles. No change is made in the tones or
initials, except that words in ^^ 2p are many of them placed
in the aspirate column.

The spelling of many words in w with an initial v, and of
others in y with Ka or n, will be found explained in Part I.
section IV. With respect to the two columns headed ch
and TSH, which are the same to our ears, it may be observed,
that at Su-cheu words under the former headiifg are. pro-
nounced CH, and under the latter ts, indicating a natural
separation between the two columns.

The resume of this appendix, and of what was said on the
Dictionary tables in the sections on the sounds at the com-
mencement of the present work may be stated thus: —

1. The peculiarities of the tabulated initials, finals and
tones are all explained, by bringing the different dialects of
the three Kiang provinces together; the aspirated f column
being the only prominent anomaly that has not been illus-
trate.

2. The peculiarities of mandarin pronunciation, such as
the interchange of some initial consonants, the prefixing of ng
to many words in the upper tones (v. page 51), the coalescing
of the upper and lower tones in all cases except that of the
p'ing sitting y the uniform occurrence of the aspirate after k, t,
p, in the hid^ p'ii^g) and the loss of the short tone in the
northern provinces, are all unnoticed in the old tables, while
they are all recognized in modern works on sounds.

It may be remarked generally on the two systems that the
tendency of words in mandarin is to coalesce in sound, while
in the other system, the tendency is to more minute sub-
division. The mandarin is the most widely spread, embrac-
ing two thirds of the 18 provinces.

It appears plain from the Corean and Japanese transcrip-
tions of Chinese sounds made contemporaneously with the
dictio'iaries, that the north of China must then have had the
same dialect as that now prevailing in the kiang provinces.

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APDBKDA. 225

A, The circumflex tone'b in page 9, may be further 3ivided.
The bend of the voice may be upward or downward. Per-
haps the 8h&ng-hai fifth tone may be best described, as some*
times a low slow falling circumflex, (1,8. f. c. ) and at other
times as a low even tone. ( 1. &• e. ) There would with this
extension of the natural tones mentioned in section 2. be
seven starting from the same, key, viz. The even, rising, falling,
rising circumflex, falling circumflex, rising short, and falling
short tones. If subdivided into an upper and lower key, they
become fourteen, and if considered according to their tim3 as
quick or slow, we have in all ( the short tones not admitting
of this subdivion) 24 natural tones.

B. If Boman numerals i to viii be used for the eight tones,
the changes of tone occurring in combination in our dialect
may be represented as foUows : — ^In the groups v — i, and
viii — i, 1' become v. In ii — ^ii^ ii — vi, vi — vi and vi — ^ii, the
last tone often becomes i, or else former becomes iii or vii.
In iii — ^iii, iii — vii, the former becomes ii. In v-r-v, iv — v,
V does not change, but in other cases v becomes i«

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